Iowa  State  Teachers’ 
Association 


HIGH  SCHOOL 
MANUAL 

Issued  Under  I he  Direction 
of  a Committee  of  Twelve, 
Appointed  by  The  General 
Association,  December,  1899 


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Des  Moines,  Iowa,  December,  1901. 


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Iowa  State  Teachers’  Association 


A MANUAL  FOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS, 

Setting  forth  the  Course  of  Study  adopted  by  the  General  Association,  a 
discussion  of  each  subject  in  the  Course,  and  various  other 
matters  of  value  to  High  School  Teachers 
and  to  School  Boards. 


Prepared  by  the  Committee  of  Twelve  appointed  by  the  General 
Association  of  the  Iowa  State  Teachers’  Association. 

Thomas  Nicholson,  Chairman; 

A.  T.  Hukill,  Secretary; 

H.  H.  Seerley, 

A.  B.  Warner, 

Lydia  Hinman, 

J.  J.  McConnell, 

A.  V.  Storm, 

Charles  Eldred  Shelton, 

A.  W.  Stuart, 

. J.  H.  T.  Main, 

R.  C.  Hughes, 

Hill  M.  Bell. 

Committee. 

Des  Moines,  Iowa,  December,  1901. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Introductory  I^etter,  State  Superintendent  Barrett. •_ 4 

PART  I. 

General  Introduction,  Chairman  Thomas  Nicholson 5 

History  of  Committee — Reprint  of  former  Report— Acknowledge- 
ments—List  of  persons  contributing 5-10 

Secondary  Education,  President  H.  H.  Seerley 10 

Manual  Training 14 

Reports  and  Records,  H.  C.  Dorcas 16 

Records 18 

Important  Educational  Documents,  by  Thomas  Nicholson 23 

PART  II. 

High  School  Course  of  Study,  adopted  by  Association,  Decem- 
ber, 1899 1- 27 

Botany,  and  Supplementary  Criticism 28 

Civics,  I,  II— - 32,  33 

Economics . 35 

Composition  and  Rhetoric • 38 

English  Literature 39 

History 44 

Latin;  Logical  Value  of  Latin 52,  55 

Mathematics • - 56 

Physical  Geography 65 

Physiology- 71 

' Physics 73 

PART  III. 

Arithmetic  80 

u Astronomy 83 

‘ Business  Training- 85 

Chemistry 89 

Drawing 95 

^ French  99 

J German 102 

Greek 106 

Grammar,  I,  II. 111,  112 

Geology  115 

Music ^ 117 

Zoology 121 

PART  IV. 

Physical  Training- ___  125 

The  Inner  Life  of  the  High  School 127 

Athletics 128 

Rules  Governing  the  Accrediting  of  High  Schools 129 

How  a High  School  May  Become  Accredited 131 

Association  Course  of  Study  and  Entrance  Requirements 132 


DEPARTMENT  OF  PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION. 


Des  Moinks,  Dkckmbkr  1,  1901. 

By  law  it  is  the  duty  of  the  board  of  directors  to'prescribe  a 
course  of  study  for  the  schools  over  which  they  have  control.  This 
unfortunately  results  in  a g-reat  variety  of  courses  even  though  con- 
ditions are  the  same.  The  Twenty-Eighth  General  Assembly,  recog- 
nizing the  need  and  value  of  greater  uniformity,  authorized  the 
superintendent  of  public  instruction  to  prepare,  publish  and  distribute 
a course  of  study  for  high  schools.  The  State  Teachers’  Association 
having  for  several  years,  through  a committee  of  twelve,  been  at 
work  on  a manual  for  high  schools,  it  was  deemed  wise  for  the  de- 
partment to  co-operate.  This  has  been  done  most  cheerfully. 

The  committee  first  studied  the  high  school  and  learned  its  real 
condition;  second,  it  ascertained  the  requirements  for  such  a course 
as  suggested  by  the  National  Educational  Association;  third,  it 
considered  the  entrance  requirements  of  Iowa  colleges;  fourth,  it 
considered  the  whole  question  with  a view  to  producing  a course 
that  would  prove  of  the  greatest  value  to  pupils  in  general  in  our 
own  high  schools.  I believe  that  no  course  heretofore  submitted  has 
been  so  carefully  prepared.  That  it  will  be  most  cordially  received, 
I have  no  doubt.  That  it  will  prove  of  inestimable  value  is  unques- 
tioned, if  rightfully  used. 

While  commending  the  Manual  to  boards  of  directors,  we  cau- 
tion them  against  attempting  to  do  more  than  can  be  well  and 
thoroughly  accomplished  with  the  teaching  force  and  equipment 
they  have.  The  common  school,  of  which  the  high  school  is  a part, 
is  for  all  the  pupils,  of  all  the  people,  and  in  it  should  be  taught  well 
the  fundamentals  of  an  English  education.  The  Manual  will  assist 
in  determining  the  subjects  to  be  taught,  the  order  and  best  method 
of  presenting  the  same,  and  the  amount  of  work  to  be  done  in  a given 
time.  It  is  a valuable  contribution  to  the  educational  literature  of 
the  state. 

Richard  C.  Barrett, 

Supt.  Public  Instruction. 


Part  I. 


GENERAL  INTRODUCTION. 

A committee  consisting-  of  Thomas  Nicholson,  Chairman;  A.  T. 
Hukill,  Secretary;  H.  H.  Seerley,  A.  B.  Warner,  Tydia  Hinman,  J. 
J.  McConnell,  A.  V.  Storm,  R.  C.  Hughes,  A.  W.  Stuart,  J.  H.  T. 
Main,  R.  A.  Harkness,  Charles  O.  Denny,  was  appointed  by  the 
General  Association  in  December,  1898,  to  prepare  a course  of  study 
for  Iowa  high  schools,  and  to  have  in  charge  the  preparation  of  a 
Manual  for  the  same.  This  committee  met  at  Iowa  City  in  the  fol- 
lowing April  and  gave  long  and  careful  attention  to  the  work  com- 
mitted to  its  charge.  Frequent  meetings  followed,  a report  was 
made  to  the  General  Association  in  December,  1899,  stating  that  the 
Chairman  in  consultation  with  other  members  early  in  the  year  had 
made  an  outline  of  subjects  covering  the  chief  points  needing  care- 
ful consideration,  had  assigned  them  to  different  members  of  the 
committee  for  investigation  and  report,  and  that  these  members  had 
presented  papers  prepared  with  great  conscientiousness  and  care  to 
the  committee  at  its  general  meeting.  In  these  papers  and  the  dis- 
cussions which  followed,  the  following  points  were  considered: 

What  is  the  real  condition  of  high  school  courses  in  Iowa? 
What  are  the  requirements  of  the  courses  suggested  by  the  National 
Educational  Association?  What  are  the  entrance  requirements  of 
the  colleges  belonging  to  the  College  Department  of  the  Iowa  State 
Teachers’  Association?  How  far  do  the  general  conditions  of  our 
high  schools  and  their  constituencies  demand  courses  differing  from 
the  college  preparatory  course,  and  what  attitude  ought  the  college 
men  to  hold  toward  the  high  schools  in  this  regard?  Is  it  feasible 
to  have  one  course  in  each  high  school  which  shall  be  specifically  a 
college  preparatory  course?  How  far  is  it  possible  for  all  the  high 
schools  to  have  uniform  courses  and  what  can  we  do  to  bring  them 
into  general  use?  The  comparative  value  of  time,  kind  and  quality 
in  preparatory  work.  Is  it  feasible  to  have  a high  school  manual 
which  shall  outline  the  kind  and  amount  of  work,  give  suggestions 
for  proper  equipment  for  the  teaching  of  each  subject,  give  sugges- 
tions about  proper  methods  of  teaching  in  the  respective  branches, 
as  to  text  books  and  various  other  matter  of  importance  to  the 
school? 

This  committee  elicted  the  fact  that  there  was  great  confusion 
in  our  high  school  courses  of  study,  that  there  was  an  utter  lack  of 


6 


uniformity,  in  estimate  of  the  relative  value  of  subjects  and  groups 
of  subjects,  and  no  uniformity  as  to  the  beginnings  and  the  endings  of 
the  high  school  courses. 

A vast  amount  of  other  information  was  secured  and  after  fre- 
quent consultation  among  themselves  and  with  leading  school  men 
throughout  the  state  a course  of  study  which  follows  on  page  27  was 
presented  to  the  General  Association  and  unanimously  adopted  on 
December  29,  1899.  At  this  time  the  committee  presented  a con- 
densed summary  of  their  discussions  and  of  the  principles  which 
they  had  adopted  in  preparing  their  report  and  which  they  proposed 
to  adopt  in  the  preparation  of  the  Manual  which  they  suggested  as 
a desirable  publication.  It  has  been  thought  wise  to  present  here 
this  summary  of 

GENERAL  PRINCIPLES: 

1.  It  was  agreed  that  the  aim  of  the  hig-h  school  was  not  to  fit  for  colleg’e.  People  do  not 
and  will  not  consider  it  specifically  a colleg'e  preparatory  school.  No  more  is  it  a school  to 
fit  for  business  occupations,  mechanical  pursuits  or  any  of  the  professions . Its  specific  pur- 
pose is  TO  FIT  ITS  PUPILS  FOR  THE  DUTIES  OF  LIFE.  It  may  become  the  duty  of  life  to  g-o  to 
colleg’e,  to  eng’ag’ein  business,  to  practice  law  or  medicine  or  any  one  of  a hundred  other  con- 
ceivable things  unforseen  by  the  pupil  while  he  is  in  the  high  school.  The  aim  of  the  high 
school  course  should,  therefore,  be  to  give  the  child  a solid  discipline  of  his  faculties,  a broad 
view  of  life,  proper  self-control,  a trained  judgment,  an  appreciation  of  educational  values, 
proper  methods  of  study  and  of  work,  an  inspiration  for  life  and  for  study,  and  such  a com- 
mand of  himself  and  of  all  his  powers  as  shall  enable  him  advantageously  and  intelligently 
to  take  up  any  of  the  legitimate  things  which  may  become  the  duty  of  life. 

2.  The  student  will  not,  as  a rule,  remain  more  than  four  years  in  the  high  school,  hence 
the  course  there  given  should  be  so  arranged  that  the  pupils  who  complete  any  well-ordered 
four  year  high  school  course  should  be  admitted  to  college  without  conditions.  Furthermore, 
the  pupil,  at  the  beginning  of  his  high  school  course,  cannot  determine  what  course  he  should 
pursue  if  he  goes  to  college;  nor  is  he  at  that  time  competent  to  decide  what  college  course  he 
may  take,  as  very  few  enter  high  school  with  the  distinct  idea  of  completing  a full  college 
course.  It  should,  therefore,  not  be  easier  to  enter  one  course  in  college  than  another.  Under 
present  conditions  a student  who  has  pursued  a full  four  years’  course  without  Greek  or  Ger- 
man enters  the  classical  or  the  philosophical  course  in  college  at  a disadvantage,  since  he  is 
burdened  with  language  conditions  which  must  be  made  up,  either  at  the  expense  of  heavier 
work  than  that  required  of  the  scientific  student,  which  is  almost  certain  to  endanger  either 
his  health  or  his  scholarship,  or  at  the  expense  of  an  extra  year  or  a part  of  a year  in  college, 
which  he  will  not  and  should  not  be  required  to  take.  The  colleges  should  recognize  that  for 
the  great  majority  of  their  Freshmen  the  high  schools  will  be  the  place  of  preparation  and 
they  should  so  arrange  their  courses  of  study  that  four  years  of  straight  work  of  sound  colle- 
giate grade  following  four  years  pf  high  school  work  of  recognized  grade  should  admit  the 
candidate  to  any  degree. 

3.  Hence  kind  and  quality  of  work  should  determine  rather  than  specific  subjects  pur- 
sued, provided  such  fundamentals  as  Latin,  English  and  Mathematics  be  in  every  course. 
It  was  argued  that  no  inconsiderable  part  of  the  advantage  claimed  for  the  discipline  gained 
from  four  years  of  Latin  arises  from  the  fact  that  the  student  is  held  to  the  one  study  con- 
tinuously, and  term  after  term  he  must  follow  his  own  work  in  such  a way  that  defects  are 
sure  to  appear  if  there  be  any.  By  this  process,  also,  he  gains  something  like  a mastery  of 
one  subject  which  is  a very  desirable  thing.  If  physics,  or  botany,  or  history  or  any  other 
subject  taught  by  modern  and  sound  pedagogical  methods  were  to  be  pursued  in  the  same 
way,  so  that  the  student  be  held  to  it  term  after  term  until  he  gained  the  advantage  of  a 
continous  discipline  and  an  approximate  mastery  of  the  subject  so  far  as  it  lay  within  the 
range  of  his  actual  or  possible  power,  these  subjects  would  gain  very  much  of  the  advantage 
now  claimed  for  language  and  mathematics.  The  committee,  therefore,  recommends  that, 
wherever  possible,  the  high  school  course  be  so  framed  as  to  provide  for  continuous  study  in 
a few  subjects,  rather  than  for  superficial  and  limited  work  in  a number.  Physics,  botany, 
zoology,  chemistry  and  such  studies  should  continue  through  at  least  one  year,  wherever 
undertaken,  and  should  only  be  attempted  where  there  is  proper  equipment  for  laboratory 
work.  The  school  authorities  should  select  the  subject  for  which  they  can  provide  the  best 
equipment,  the  best  teaching  force  and  which,  owing  to  local  conditions,  will  create  the 
greatest  interest  among  pupils  and  patrons,  and  secure  the  most  thorough  and  scientific 
work.  When  these  conditions  are  observed,  the  colleges  will  allow  quite  a wide  range  of 
choice  in  the  selection  of  subjects  from  the  same  or  from  related  groups. 

It  was  shown  that  the  spirit  of  the  collies  was  to  require  subjects  which  they  can  get 
rather  than  those  which  they  desire,  provided  the  work  is  shown  to  have  sound  educational 
value  and  is  sufficient  in  kind  and  quality.  There  is  a wide  divergence  in  college  academies 


7 


both  as  to  subjects  and  grade  of  work,  and  in  some  instances  they  need  to  increase  the  ed- 
ucational value  of  their  work  if  the  colleg-e  to  which  they  belong-  is  to  retain  its  proper  rank. 
Some  thoug-ht  it  would  be  better  for  the  collesre  academies  to  outline  a four  year  course  rather 
than  the  present  three  years  with  a sub-preparatory  year. 

An  interesting- paper  was  read  before  one  of  the  sections  of  the  South-eastern  Iowa 
Teachers’  Association,  showing-  that  a careful  investig-ation  of  the  records  of  one  of  the  best 
colleg-es  in  our  state  indicates  that  through  periods  of  years  the  average  record  of  students 
whose  college  courses  had  been  pursued  after  a preparatory  course  taken  in  a high"  school 
with  a four  year  Latin  course  and  in  the  preparatory  department  of  the  college  itself  did  not 
var3^  in  any  degree  worthy  of  mention,  while  the  average  record  of  those  who  had  been  pre- 
pared in  a four  vear  English  course  in  a high  school  fell  from  six  to  fifteen  per  cent  below 
that  of  those  in  the  courses  above  mentioned.  The  writer  gave  it  as  his  opinion  that  this 
was  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  the  English  course  is  often,  if  not  generally,  made  up  in 
a scrappy  way,  and  too  frequently  admits  subjects  which  have  not  the  sound  educational 
value  of  those  in  the  Latin  course.  He  thought  there  was  no  evidence  that  the  students 
from  the  English  courses  were  in  general  below  the  others  in  native  ability  or  in  application. 

4.  In  regard  to  the  movement  to  shorten  either  the  secondary  or  the  college  course  to 
three  years,  it  was  agreed  that  we  should  insist  upon  four  years  in  each.  There  should  also 
be  four  years  of  grammar  grade  work,  and  it  was  considered  all  important  that  this  should 
be  carefully  outlined  and  made  of  sufficient  strength  to  preclude  the  necessity  of  forcing  into 
the  high  school  studies  which  properly  belong  in  the  grammar  grades.  Too  many  high 
schools  are  so  only  in  name,  a large  percentage  of  their  work  being  that  which  properly  be- 
longs to  the  grades  below.  All  agreed  that  it  was  quite  desirable  to  have  Latin,  German, 
(where  taught,)  concrete  geometry  and  possibly  one  or  two  other  such  studies,  begin  in  the 
grammar  grades. 

In  view  of  the  above,  it  was  considered  wise  to  allow  pupils  above  the  average  in  natural 
ability,  or  who  for  any  reason  show  that  the3’-  are  able  to  do  more  than  the  regular 
work  well,  an  opportunity  to  complete  the  course  in  a shorter  time.  The  aim  should  be  to 
fix  the  quantity  of  work,  to  make  frequent  and  thorough  tests  of  the  quality,  and  let  each 
student  take  the  time  necessary  for  him.  Some  strongly  urged  the  wisdom  of  strict  college 
entrance  examinations,  not  on  the  ground  alone  of  the  good  of  the  college,  but  as  a stimulus 
to  the  pupils  in  the  high  school  to  do  better  and  more  thorough  work,  and  that, 
for  the  same  reason,  rigid  examinations  set  upon  sound  pedagogical  principles  are  valuable 
in  the  high  school  itself;  but  it  was  agreed  that  under  the  present  conditions,  we  must  be 
satisfied  with  less  than  this  ideal,  contenting  ourselves  with  the  use  of  every  possible  en- 
deavor to  secure  thorough  mastery  of  subjects  and  a method  of  teaching  which  would  give 
the  student  a clear  grasp  of  the  subject  studied  and  a desire  for  and  the  abilit3'  to  take  up 
further  study  of  that  or  any  other  subject  independently. 

5.  It  was  shown  that  of  nearly  800  schools  listed  in  Iowa  School  Directory,  140  announce 
a four  year  course,  24  a three  year  course,  1 a two  year  course  and  2 a one  year  course. 

This  would  seem  to  indicate  that  nearly  six  hundred  of  these  schools  offer  no  work  in 
any  foreign  language,  and  the  best  information  which  the  committee  could  command  pointed 
to  the  probability  that  a greater  part  of  this  large  number  of  schools  had  courses  decidedly 
inferior  in  educational  value.  They  were  thus  met  with  the  mournful  probability  that  a 
ver>'  large  percentage  of  our  youth  go  out  into  life  with  a ver3^^  defective  preparation  for  its 
duties.  This  should  be  an  incentive  to  the  general  Association  and  to  all  friends  of  educa- 
tion to  join  a campaign  for  arousing  educational  spirit  throughout  our  state,  to  overlook 
minor  differences  and  to  unite  on  some  scheme  that  will  enable  us  to  work  together  in  har- 
mony and  educational  fellowship  and  to  exert  all  our  strength  to  secure  for  the  coming  gen- 
eration the  fullest  educational  equipment  for  life’s  best  work.  There  should  not  be  and  there 
is  no  conflict  of  interest  between  the  high  school  and  the  college,  and  their  courses  should  be 
mutually  considered  and  should  be  framed  in  the  light  of  a frank  recognition  and  a vivid 
realization  of  the  facts  here  presented. 

6.  The  committee  was  unanimousl3^  of  the  opinion  that  all  should  unite  in  an  effort  to 
have  schools  of  Law,  Medicine,  Pharmacy,  Dentistry,  etc.,  require  at  least  the  full  four 
year  high  school  course,  or  the  full  college  entrance  requirement  for  admission  to  these  courses. 
The  highest  interest  of  the  state  and  of  the  nation  demands  this  preliminary  equipment  for 
these  duties  of  life  and  for  anything  like  proper  efficiency  in  these  professions. 

7.  All  this  indicates  that  the  general  Association  and  educators  at  large  should  agree 
upon  a definite  standard  which  any  school  must  reach  in  order  to  be  considered  a high 
school  at  all.  There  is  no  reason  why  we  should  not  set  at  least  a minimum  standard,  as  to 
number  and  kind  of  teachers  employed,  subjects  taught,  equipments,  methods,  etc.  The 
committee  saw  no  reason  why  within  reasonable  latitude  of  electives,  the  courses  in  one.  two 
or  three  year  high  schools  should  not  parallel  tho.se  in  the  fully  equipped  four  year  high 
school,  and  it  seemed  desirable  to  work  toward  this  end. 

8.  The  committee  considers  it  wise  that  the  high  school  should  have  shorter  recitation 
periods  and  usually  more  subjects  than  the  college,  because  children  are  younger,  are  able 
to  give  continuous  attention  for  a shorter  period  of  time,  have  outside  duties,  because  in  the 
nature  of  things  the  foundation  must  be  broad  before  specialization  begins,  and  for  numerous 
other  reasons.  A scheme  calling  for  seventeen  to  twenty  recitations  of  thirty  to  thirty- 
five  minutes  each  per  week  was  agreed  upon  as  the  best.  The  general  sentiment  of  the 
committee  was  that  in  no  case  should  more  than  four  recitations  per  day  for  five  days  in  the 
week,  or  twenty  periods  per  week  be  prescribed. 

9.  There  was  quite  a sentiment  in  favor  of  music,  drawing  and  possibly  manual  train- 
ing in  the  high  school. 


8 


AS  TO  SPECIFIC  SUBJECTS. 

1.  Mathematics  offered  no  subject  for  controversy.  All  ag-reed  that  its  place  was  fixed 
and  that  at  least  algebra  and  plane  geometry  should  be  included  in  any  course. 

2.  The  committee  was  quite  decidedly  of  the  opinion  that  history  and  political  science 
should  have  a larger  place  and  that  we  should  endeavor  to  secure  scientific  teaching  of  these 
subjects.  The  later  work  should  be  by  topics  and  the  study  should  be  a thorough  master}?- 
of  facts,  a careful  analysis  of  the  data  and  a clear  apprehension  of  the  underlying  principle 
which  they  indicated.  Of  course,  it  is  not  expected  that  original  investigation  will  be  taken 
up  in  the  high  schools.  The.tendency  to  bring  university  methods  and  plans  serviceable 
only  to  trained  minds  and  experienced  workers  into  high  school  work  is  to  be  avoided,  but  a 
careful  study  of  recognized  authorities,  the  cultivation  of  habitsof  keen  discrimination,  the 
understanding  of  fundamental  principles  and  a fairly  comprehensive  survey  of  the  practical 
side  of  history  and  political  science  is  within  the  reach  of  any  good  high  school  and  should  be 
considered . 

3.  It  seemed  wise  to  make  liberal  provision  for  English,  and  for  English  and  American 
Literature.  The  reasons  will  be  obvious.  In  place  of  eight  or  nine  required  works  in  English 
Classics  which  are  usually  prescribed,  it  was  thought  best  to  set  down  a list  of  fifty  or  one 
hundred  suitable  works,  from  which  the  required  number  might  be  selected.  This  would 
leave  room  for  the  individuality  of  the  teacher.  It  was  conceded  that  those  authors  would 
be  best  taught  which  appealed  most  powerfully  to  the  individual  teacher  and  her  pupils. 

4.  That  Science  should  have  a proper  place  and  be  treated  as  indicated  under  general 
principle  “3.” 

5.  Latin  should  have  a conspicuous  place.  The  School  Review  ior  June,  1897,  tabulates 
the  replies  given  by  416  high  school  men  as  to  whether  Latin  should  be  taught  in  the  high 
school  and  a great  majority  say  unequivocally  “yes.”  The  following  considerations  influ- 
enced your  committee: 

(a)  Latin  affords  one  of  the  best  opportunities  for  that  continued  and  exacting  discip- 
line which  is  one  of  the  greatest  benefits  derived  from  an  education. 

(b)  Prudential  reasons  suggest  its  wisdom.  It  is  comparatively  easy  to  secure  efficient 
teachers  of  Latin;  the  committee  of  ten  strongly  recommends  it;  the  required  equipment  is 
small  and  inexpensive;  and  it  is  a general  requirement  for  entrance  to  all  colleges  east  and 
west . 

(c)  It  is  the  best  basis  for  English.  All  agreed  that  much  more  efficient  work  should 
be  done  in  English,  and  Latin  was  one  of  the  most  powerful  aids  to  a complete  mastery  of 
the  mother  tongue.  Where  a teacher  makes  the  instruction  in  Latin  a menace  to  the  culti- 
vation of  a good  English  style,  he  or  she  should  be  dismissed  at  once.  There  will  be  little 
need  for  “word  analysis”  which  occupies  so  conspicuous  a place  in  some  courses,  if  Latin  be 
properly  taught,  and  especially  if  German  be  added  to  the  Latin. 

(d)  We  are  living  in  a scientific  age.  The  scientific  spirit  seeks  for  sources  and  urges 
us  back  to  foundations  and  fundamentals.  Latin,  German  and  Anglo-Saxon  are  the  sources 
of  our  English  speech.  Among  these,  Latin  is  conspicuous  and  hence  a scientific  knowl- 
edge of  English  requires  a proper  study  of  Latin. 

After  mature  deliberation  upon  all  the  points  involved  and  a careful  survey  of  Iowa 
conditions,  the  committee  agreed  that  the  Latin  requirements  of  the  Classical  Course  recom- 
mended b}^  the  committee  of  ten  of  the  National  Educational  Association  could  not  be  ob- 
tained in  Iowa  high  schools  at  present.  All  agreed  that  the  Latin- Scientific  course  recom- 
mended by  the  committee  afforded  at  least  a satisfactory  starting  point  for  THE  ONE 
NECESSARY  COURSE  for  our  schools.  It  was  accordingly  made  the  basis  of  the  report 
and  of  the  course  agreed  upon,  and  herewith  presented  for  adoption  by  Iowa  teachers. 

This  report  was  unanimously  adopted  and  the  committee  was 
continued  with  instructions  to  prepare  the  Manual.  The  General 
Association  substituted  President  Charles  Kldred  Shelton  for  Profes- 
sor R.  A.  Harkness,  resig-ned. 

The  next  year  the  work  of  preparing  this  Manual  was  in  the 
hands  of  a sub-committee  consisting  of  J.  H.  T.  Main,  of  Iowa 
College,  and  J.  J.  McConnell,  of  the  State  University,  with  Principal 
Uydia  Hinman,  of  East  Waterloo.  They  did  much  work  and  secured 
the  first  draft  of  papers. 

At  a meeting  in  Council  Bluffs,  November,  1900,  at  which  all 
members  of  the  committee  were  present,  together  with  State  Super- 
intendent Barrett,  arrangements  were  made  to  submit  each  paper  to 
six  or  more  public  school  men  who  had  a state-wide  reputation  for 
practical  knowledge  in  the  given  subject.  These  lists  were  prepared 


9 


with  care;  the  papers  were  passed  around,  the  criticisms  were  col- 
lected, carefully  examined  by  the  committee,  and  all  suggestions 
which  seemed  weighty  were  noted.  The  letters  thus  annotated  to- 
gether with  the  original  paper  were  turned  back  to  the  writers  for 
revision  and  final  preparation.  These  men  gave  uniform  and  courte- 
ous attention  to  all  criticisms  and  an  extended  correspondence  was 
carried  on.  The  committee  having  in  charge  the  Manual  cannot  too 
highly  express  its  appreciation  of  the  vast  amount  of  work  done,  the 
uniform  courtesy  under  circumstances  which  might  have  made  irrita- 
tion possible,  and  the  painstaking  revision  made  by  the  gentlemen  who 
have  prepared  these  papers.  They  deserve  fitting  recognition  at  the 
hands  of  the  teachers  of  Iowa. 

Upon  the  removal  of  Charles  O.  Denny  from  the  state.  Dean  Hill 
M.  Bell,  of  Des  Moines,  was  appointed  in  his  place. 

In  the  work  of  preparing  the  papers,  securing  criticisms  and  re- 
visions, much  work  was  performed  by  President  Seerley,  of  the 
State  Normal  School,  President  Hughes  now  of  Ripon  College,  Wis- 
consin, Professor  Main,  Superintendent  McConnell,  Superintendent 
A.  T.  Hukill,  and  Principal  Uydia  Hinman.  State  Superintendent 
Barrett  has  from  the  first  given  the  committee  his  hearty  support, 
has  been  present  at  every  meeting  at  which  opportunity  has  been 
afforded,  and  the  thanks  of  the  body  is  hereby  extended  to  him  for 
his  valuable  suggestions,  his  uniform  courtesy  and  his  deep  interest 
in  the  work.  It  is  due,  also,  that  mention  should  be  made  of  Mr.  H» 
C.  Dorcas,  of  the  Department  of  Pedagogy  of  the  State  University. 
He  has  been  at  almost  every  meeting  of  the  committee  from  the 
first,  has  done  a large  volume  of  clerical  work,  made  some  of  the 
most  valuable  suggestions,  and  his  services  are  hereby  acknowl- 
edged. 

The  final  editing,  printing  and  proof  reading  were  committed  to 
a committee  consisting  of  Superintendents  J.  J.  McConnell  and  A 
T.  Hukill,  President  J.  H.  T.  Main,  and  the  chairman. 

A list  of  the  teachers  of  the  state  who  have  aided  the  committee* 
by  suggestions,  written  or  oral  criticisms,  and  in  various  other  ways, 
is  hereby  appended;  space  will  not  permit  the  mention  of  every 
name,  but  the  list  will  indicate  the  range  of  consultation  and  the 
effort  of  the  committee  to  secure  the  widest  possible  adaptability  to 
Iowa  schools.  The  thanks  of  the  committee  are  extended  to  all 
those  here  mentioned  and  to  many  others  whose  names  cannot  be 
printed  for  lack  of  space,  who  have  so  willingly  and  kindly  given  of 
their  time,  their  thought  and  their  attention. 

It  is  intended  to  keep  a record  of  the  main  criticisms  offered  upon 
the  work,  of  any  valuable  suggestions  which  may  come  from  any 
quarter,  with  the  view  of  publishing  a revision  of  this  book,  enlarged 
and  improved  within  the  next  two  or  three  years.  The  work  already 
done  can  hardly  fail  to  be  of  service  to  a large  number  of  schools 


10 


throughout  our  state  if  used  in  the  same  spirit  in  which  it  has  been 
prepared. 

In  behalf  of  the  Committee  of  Twelve, 

Thomas  Nicholson,  Chairman. 

The  list  ol  persons  who  have  rendered  assistance  in  various  ways  to  the  work  of  the  com- 
mittee: 

State  Superintendent  Barrett,  Assistant  State  Superintendent  A.  C.  Ross,  H,  E. 
Kratz.  F,  H.  Bloodgrood,  E.  W.  Graff,  F.  T.  Oldt,  W.  I.  Simpson,  S.  H.  Sheakley,  A.  W. 
Merrill,  W.  C.  VanNess,  W.  A.  Doron,  Maurice  Ricker,  E.  W.  Bej^eman,  Amy  Bogcfs.  W.  W. 
Gist,  Jeannette  Carpenter,  O.  W.  VVe3^er,  J.  B.  Knoepffler.  Mrs.  Marie  Riddell,  L.  W.  Par- 
rish, Georg-e  Chandler,  W.  F.  Chevalier,  F.  E.  Willard,  F.  E.  Palmer,  A.  R.  Sale,  John  E. 
Cameron,  F.  M.  Witter,  Jennie  E.  Curtis,  D.  M.  Kelly.  Mae  L.  MacLeod.  George  H.  Betts, 
Harry  M.  Kelly,  W.  F,  Barr,  F.  L Douglas,  H.  H.  Freer,  J.  S.  Gochenauer,  J.  P.  Hugget, 
C.  A.  Fuherton,  F.  C.  Eastman,  D.  S.  Wright,  G.  E.  Finch,  G.  H.  Hanawalt,  M.  F.  Arey, 
A.  G.  Smith,  A.  C.  Piersel,  F.  C.  Bolton.  Charles  Noble,  George  E.  Maclean,  Alice  Young, 
and  many  others.  Much  valuable  assistance  has  been  rendered  by  the  Faculty  of  theState 
Normal  School.  Cedar  Falls,  the  Faculty  of  the  State  University  at  Iowa  City,  and  the 
professors  of  Iowa  College  at  Grinnell.  The  names  of  the  writers  of  the  papers  are  appended 
to  each  document. 


SECONDARY  EDUCATION, 

By  President  H.  H.  Seerley,  LL.  D.  State  Normal  School. 

America  commonly  classifies  the  schools  of  her  several  common- 
wealths as  elementary,  secondary  and  higher.  The  historic  devel- 
opment of  the  so-called  American  system  began  with  the  college, 
then  came  the  elementary  schools  and  finally  the  secondary  school 
was  created  as  a necessary  connecting  link  between  the  elementary 
school  and  the  college.  The  first  secondary  schools  were  not  public, 
but  private  and  endowed  fitting  schools  having  as  their  chief  busi- 
ness the  preparation  of  young  men  for  higher  education.  The  stand- 
ard of  the  courses  of  study  maintained  by  these  academies  was  de- 
termined by  the  college  requirements  for  entrance  and  changes  were 
readily  and  easily  made  to  suit  the  new  or  additional  demands  that 
the  colleges  deemed  necessary  for  better  preparation.  With  the 
growth  and  development  of  free  public  schools  there  came  a common 
feeling  among  the  people  that  it  would  be  better  to  keep  the  boys  at 
home  during  these  years  of  attendance  at  the  academy  and  at  the 
same  time  the  pride  and  ambition  of  communities  also  aided  in  ex- 
panding the  courses  of  study  of  the  elementary  schools  by  the  intro- 
duction of  academic  studies  until  the  modern  public  high  school 
became  a fact  in  every  enterprising,  progressive  town  and  city.  The 
high  school  was  a new  type  of  a secondary  school.  It  was  not  sub- 
ject to  the  dictation  of  the  college  as  the  academy  had  been.  It  be- 
came an  institution  that  was  specially  under  the  dominion  of  local 
public  opinion  and  was  directed  and  developed  by  representatives  of 
the  people  selected  by  a majority  vote  at  the  popular  election.  The 
high  school  became  therefore  a secondary  school  with  a broader 
mission  than  its  predecessor,  the  academy,  as  it  was  soon  attended 
by  a large  number  of  pupils  who  sought  the  education  there  obtain- 
able for  its  own  sake  as  a fitting  training  for  practical  life,  rather 
than  as  simply  a preparation  for  higher  study  in  the  colleges  and 
universities.  The  opening  of  such  secondary  schools  in  every  center 


11 


where  the  people  were  willing  to  tax  themselves  for  their  support 
has  developed  an  educational  field  which  for  importance  to  public 
welfare  and  for  largeness  of  promise  as  a teaching  vocation  has  had 
no  parallel  in  the  educational  history  of  the  past  century.  The  last 
decade  has  witnessed  a most  remarkable  expansion  of  secondary 
schools.  The  most  palatial  structures  that  are  to  be  found  devoted 
to  any  public  work  have  been  erected,  the  most  expensive  and  com- 
plete laboratories  have  been  provided,  the  most  modern  and  decided 
equipments  have  been  selected,  the  latest  ideas  in  ventilation  and 
heating  have  been  adopted;  in  fact,  nothing  is  too  modern  or  too 
good  for  these  most  popular  institutions,  while  the  course  of  study  in 
all  its  phases  has  been  modified  and  enlarged  until  almost  every- 
thing taught  in  all  sorts  of  schools  is  today  offered  to  the  children 
and  youth  who  enroll  and  accept  the  free  instruction  and  training 
thus  granted. 

THE)  SCOPK  OF  SFCONDARY  EDUCATION. 

What  may  properly  be  included  in  the  work  of  a secondary 
school,  organized,  equipped,  supported  and  patronized  as  the  public 
high  school  is  today,  is  a difiicult  problem  to  outline  and  more  diffi- 
cult to  limit.  The  people  can  evidently  extend  the  work  of  the 
school  to  any  grade  they  please  as  public  educational  limits  depend 
entirely  upon  public  opinion,  decision  and  action,  but  it  seems  rea- 
sonable to  assume  that  for  general  purposes  the  public  high  school 
has  its  limits  of  service  in  the  fact  that  it  is  a connecting  link  be- 
tween the  elementary  schools  and  higher  and  professional  education, 
as  well  as  a school  fitting  its  pupils  for  the  practical  and  business 
occupations  of  human  life.  It  must  certainly  be  conceded  that  a 
high  school  which  does  not  through  its  courses  of  study  open  up 
the  opportunity  for  its  graduates  to  go  on  into  higher  education, 
without  loss  of  time  or  effort,  fails  to  fulfil  its  entire  function.  If  it 
provides  more  than  the  minimum  requirements  for  entrance  of  pres- 
ent day  colleges,  it  is  not  to  be  assumed  that  it  exceeds  its  true  func- 
tion, but  if  through  doing  this  its  managers  sacrifice  thoroughness 
and  completeness,  substituting  a smattering  of  many  branches  fora 
substantial  knowledge  of  a few  essentials,  such  education  does  an 
irreparable  injury.  It  will  tend  to  disgust  or  discourage  the  children 
who  sooner  or  later  become  conscious  of  lack  of  power  in  the  use  of 
the  knowledge  supposed  to  be  acquired  and  it  will  also  deprive  them 
of  the  development  and  training  which  all  true  education  is  assumed 
positively  to  give. 

THE  PURPOSE  OF  SECONDARY  EDUCATION. 

Education  as  an  organized  effort  always  has  a definite  purpose. 
The  general  motive  in  completing  a course  of  study  is  not  the  at- 
tainment of  rank  nor  the  honor  of  graduation.  The  sacrifices  made 
by  parents  and  children  have  a more  substantial  basis  than  the  mere 


12 


gaining-  of  diplomas  and  compliments.  It  must  have  as  its  chief 
object  the  betterment  of  the  individual  in  such  lines  of  efficiency 
and  usefulness  as  can  never  be  satisfied  by  the  factitious  nor  the  fanci- 
ful. It  is  evident  that  schools  are  to  be  judged  more  by  what  they 
actually  do  for  the  generation  under  their  instruction  than  by  what 
they  advertise  to  do  or  claim  to  do.  Their  inner  life  has  more  to  do 
with  the  outcome  of  their  pupils  than  their  plans  of  organization  or 
methods  of  instruction.  The  making  of  men  and  women  in  thought 
and  action  is  the  fundamental  purpose  rightly  assumed  as  the  fore- 
most duty  of  a good  high  school,  whether  those  under  its  influence 
go  to  college  or  go  at  once  to  the  activities  of  practical  life. 

the:  ideats  of  the:  se:condary  school. 

The  reality  that  will  be  attained  by  any  system  of  education  is 
dependent  to  a large  degree  upon  the  ideals  evolved  and  accepted. 
The  over  expansion  of  a course  of  study;  the  attempt  to  maintain  a 
high  school  without  sufficient  teaching  force  or  without  teachers  of 
good  extensive  scholarship,  are  results  of  false  ideals.  So  with  the 
placing  of  the  factitious  and  pretentious  foremost  in  educational 
work  and  the  underestimate  often  put  upon  accuracy  and  thorough- 
ness. All  are  the  logical  result  of  false  ideals.  High  school  educa- 
tion conducted  by  the  unprepared,  by  the  untrained,  by  the  un- 
schooled or  by  the  narrow  minded  will  always  fail  to  produce  effici- 
ency in  scholarship,  largeness  in  skill,  thoughtfulness  in  thinking  or 
strength  in  constructive  ability  or  executive  power.  The  ideals  of 
culture,  of  manly  power,  or  readiness  of  action,  of  thoughtfulness, 
of  investigation,  are  all  essential  in  the  kind  of  results  that  true  edu- 
cation can  and  does  supply.  The  secondary  education  of  the  pres- 
ent day  undertakes  too  much  with  the  little,  hopes  to  accomplish  too 
much  in  too  short  a time  and  believes  too  much  in  books  and  facili- 
ties as  substitutes  for  personality,  character  and  scholarship  in  the 
teachers. 

FAULTS  TO  be:  AVOIDED. 

That  there  are  faults  in  present-day  secondary  education  which 
should  be  studied  carefully,  corrected  judiciously  and  assisted  de- 
terminedly, is  certain.  They  are  the  product  of  several  agencies. 
We  shall  enumerate  a few  simply  to  call  attention  to  them,  hoping 
that  the  people,  the  school  boards  and  the  teachers  may  jointly 
work  out  a better  condition  as  the  improvement  of  the  schools  de- 
pends upon  the  intelligence  and  interest  of  local  authorities  rather 
than  upon  law  in  itself. 

1.  Generally  there  are  too  many  isolated  branches  or  subjects 
in  the  course  of  study.  The  time  given  to  a specific  subject  is  too 
brief  to  really  accomplish  enough  to  profit  the  pupil.  Yearly  units 
of  work  are  regarded  by  the  best  authorities  to-day  as  the  minimum 
time  that  should  be  accorded  to  any  branch  of  study  that  is  worth 


13 


introducing-  into  the  program  of  instruction.  The  term-unit  so  fre- 
quently found  is  actually  a waste  of  time  as  such  an  arrangement 
gives  no  body  of  knowledge  which  contributes  to  educational  pro- 
gress in  the  pupils  afterwards  or  which  gives  them  capacity  in  prac- 
tical affairs. 

2.  The  study  of  sciences  requires  well  equipped  laboratories. 
Text-book  study  and  recitations  as  frequently  conducted  may  give 
some  general  knowledge,  but  such  methods  fail  to  accomplish  the 
real  purpose  of  the  study  of  these  sciences.  Properly  taught  these 
branches  will  leave  pupils  capable  of  investigation,  of  careful  and  in- 
dependent observation,  and  will  put  them  in  possession  of  the  prin- 
ciples upon  which  legitimate  conclusions  from  observed  facts  are 
reached. 

3.  The  teachers  in  secondary  schools  need  a much  more  ex- 
tended knowledge  of  the  branches  taught  than  is  usual,  while  ability 
and  skill  in  handling  apparatus  and  in  giving  instruction  that  is  of 
the  highest  order  is  vital  to  success.  The  modern  text-book  has  so 
many  excellencies  and  contains  so  much  method  and  direction  for 
teachers  that  many  incompetent  teachers  aspire  to  do  high  school 
work  with  only  such  pedagogical  preparation  as  is  thus  gained. 
The  authority  which  the  modern  text-book  has  attained  in  popular 
favor  is  of  such  a character  that  the  patrons  are  satisfied,  if  their 
children  seem  to  have  a moderate  knowledge  of  what  the  book  con- 
tains. So  far  has  this  gone  that  many  people  accept  the  text-book 
as  a fetich  and  believe  that  with  its  supremacy,  even  ignorant  teach- 
ers can  succeed  in  advancing  the  education  of  children  by  thus  caus- 
ing them  to  acquire  knowledge.  We  need  to  learn  the  philosophy 
of  the  German  maxim,  “The  teacher  is  the  school.” 

4.  The  needs  of  language,  history  and  allied  studies  demand 
that  a superior  library  of  reference  and  general  books,  specially 
selected  to  make  all  such  studies  profitable  and  possible,  be  pro- 
vided in  every  school.  Under  the  present  system  of  text-book  study, 
these  important  branches  are  made  so  formal,  so  limited  in  informa- 
tion and  so  technical  that  the  personal,  individual  work,  most  es- 
sential, is  omitted.  The  public  library  of  the  city  or  community 
cannot  be  a substitute  for  such  school  library.  With  the  common 
extensive  selection  of  temporary  and  light  fiction  for  public  libraries, 
there  is  likely  to  be  more  detriment  than  benefit  to  those  pupils  in 
school  who  make  a large  use  of  the  public  library  privileges.  Since 
this  cannot  be  controlled  nor  easily  managed,  the  good  of  the  pupils 
in  a high  school  demands  that  the  opportunity  for  wide  study  in  a 
school  library  be  provided  so  that  the  school  and  its  library  may  be 
one  in  interest  and  object. 

5.  Economical  methods  may  be  so  seriously  and  extensively 
applied  by  the  authorities  appointed  by  the  people  to  manage  the 
school  system  (1)  in  the  small  salaries  paid  the  teachers,  (2)  in  the 


14 


few  appliances  granted  with  which  to  do  the  work,  (3)  in  the  large 
number  and  variety  of  branches  and  classes  expected  to  be  taught 
by  an  extremely  limited  teaching  force,  that  the  pupils  enrolled  en- 
joy a high  school  in  name  and  not  in  fact.  There  are  limits  below 
which  a school  board  cannot  go  in  salary  and  get  a competent  and 
satisfactory  teacher.  There  are  possibilities  in  instruction  that  can- 
not be  reduced  unless  the  essential  appliances  are  at  hand.  There 
is  a common  custom  in  too  many  schools  to  give  a teacher  so  many 
classes,  so  many  branches  or  so  many  pupils  that  his  work  is  much 
depreciated  in  efficiency.  There  is  a point  where  so  called  economy 
becomes  reckless  waste  and  useless  extravagance. 


MANUAL  TRAINING. 

Of  the  genuine  benefits  to  be  derived  from  Manual  Training  there 
is  now  no  question.  Owing  to  the  concentration  of  our  population 
in  towns  and  cities  children  do  not  and  cannot  get  the  exercise  and 
development  that  comes  from  the  active  life  of  the  country.  This  lack 
of  exercise  must  be  supplied  in  part  at  least  through  our  schools 
and  Manual  Training  seems  to  be  the  most  natural  channel  through 
which  to  give  this  necessary  exercise  and  training. 

In  brief  Manual  Training  does  the  following  for  the  child: 

1.  It  teaches  him  self-reliance,  brings  him  in  contact  with  real 
things  and  thus  helps  to  awaken  his  reasoning  powers. 

2.  It  awakens  a deep  interest  in  school  and  invests  dull  subjects 
with  new  life. 

3.  It  keeps  boys  longer  in  school. 

4.  It  develops  a healthy  respect  for  labor  and  industry. 

5.  It  develops  thoroughness,  accuracy,  perseverance  and 
honesty. 

The  course  here  outlined  is  suggested  as  a basis  for  Manual 
Training  work  in  the  public  schools  from  the  fifth  grade  through  the 
high  school.  It  is  not  intended  that  this  course  shall  be  rigidly  fol- 
lowed, for  it  is  readily  seen  that  no  course  can  be  outlined  that  will 
be  exactly  suited  to  all  pupils  in  the  grades  mentioned.  It  must  be 
remembered  that  what  we  are  after  is  the  development  of  power  in 
the  pupils  and  the  teacher  must  use  such  models  as  will  in  his  judg- 
ment, best  bring  about  this  development  in  each  individual. 

FIFTH  GRADE. 

Mechanical  drawing,  consisting  of  instruction  in  use  of  T square, 
triangle  and  compasses  and  the  making  of  working  drawings  of  ar- 
ticles constructed  in  wood.  The  simplest  principles  of  projections 
showing  views  in  two  planes,  may  be  taught  here. 

Wood  work  consisting  of  instruction  in  the  use  of  the  saw,  plane, 
file  and  chisel. 


15 


Make  such  articles  as  rule,  pencil  sharpener,  fish  line  winder, 
paper  file,  match  scratcher,  flower  pot  stand,  bread-board,  etc. 

SIXTH  GRADE. 

Continue  the  work  in  mechanical  drawing-,  require  complete 
shop  drawing  of  each  article  constructed  in  wood. 

Continue  instruction  in  use  of  tfie  other  bench  tools,  using  such 
models  as  sand-paper,  blocks,  bench-hook,  coat-hanger,  paper 
knife,  weather  vane,  match-box,  etc.  Encourage  original  designs. 

SEVENTH  GRADE. 

Require  shop  drawings.  In  the  wood  works  use  such  models  as 
pencil  tray,  mortise  and  tenon  frame,  book-rack,  knife  and  fork  box, 
hat  and  coat  rack,  etc. 

Give  instruction  in  care  of  tools  and  how  to  sharpen  them. 
eighth  grade. 

Require  shop  drawings.  Encourage  original  designs.  Allow 
the  pupil  considerable  latitude  in  the  choice  of  models  he  shall 
make. 

Suggested  models,  picture  frame,  sled,  photo  box,  book-case, 
foot  stool,  tabourette,  etc.  Instruction  in  the  decoration  of  models 
by  means  of  chip  carving,  may  be  given  here. 

HIGH  SCHOOE  GRADES. 

In  the  high  school  the  mechanical  drawing  may  be  continued, 
and  the  principles  of  orthographic  projections,  shades  and  shadows, 
and  machine  drawing  be  taught.  The  wood  work  may  also  be  con- 
tinued and  more  difficult  articles  be  constructed  such  as  tables, 
desks,  cabinets,  etc.  Also  give  advanced  work  in  carving. 

Cost  of  equipment:  The  following  is  given  as  the  approximate 


cost  of  tools  and  equipment  required: 

1 double  work  bench,  hard  wood  top $20.00 

2 quick  action  vises 10.00 

2 -24  in.  rip  saws 3.50 

2 -22  in.  cross  cut  saws 3.00 

2 -12  in.  back  saws 2.00 

2 adze  eye  hammers 90 

2 -8  in.  marking  guages 15 

2 -4  in.  screw  drivers 40 

2 -8  in.  iron  smooth  planes 2.25 

2 -1  in.  chisels 1.50 

2 'Yz  in.  chisels 1.15 

2 -Y  in.  chisels 1.00 

2-1  in.  gouges 1.00 

1 bench  brush 75 

2 -2  ft.  rules 15 

2 -8  in.  try  squares 50 

2 sloyd  knives 60 

Total $49.20 


16 


The  foreg-oing-  is  the  approximate  cost  of  one  double  bench  and 
equipment  and  answers  for  two  pupils  at  a time.  The  above  cost 
may  be  considerably  reduced  by  using  a lig-hter  and  cheaper  style 
of  bench  and  having  only  a limited  number  of  some  of  the  tools 
(such  as  chisels,  goug-es  and  hammers)  instead  of  one  for  each  pupil 
in  class. 

In  addition  to  the  above  a number  of  tools  for  general  use  are 
needed  such  as  grind-stones,  oil-stones,  fore  planes,  glue  pot,  files, 
spoke  shave,  brace  and  bits,  nail  sets,  barrels,  panel  guage,  clamps, 
block  planes,  pliers,  steel  square. 

The  cost  of  such  general  tools  will  be  from  $30.00  upwards  ac- 
cording to  the  completeness  of  the  equipment. 

If  provision  is  made  for  giving  instruction  in  drawing  in  con- 
nection with  the  bench  work  the  additional  cost  will  be  about  $10.00 
for  a class  of  twenty  pupils.  If  extra  drawing  tables  are  not  pro- 
vided, then,  of  course,  the  expense  would  be  greater. 

A room  fitted  up  with  ten  double  benches  will  accommodate  a 
class  of  twenty,  and  by  allowing  pupils  to  come  to  the  room  at  differ- 
ent periods  such  a room  can  be  utilized  to  give  instruction  to  some 
four  hundred  pupils. 

The  total  cost  for  equiping  such  a room  will  be  about  as 


follows : 

Tools  for  ten  double  benches  and  benches $492.00 

General  tools 30.00 

Drawing  tools 10.00 

Total  cost $532.00 


To  supply  pupils  with  material  to  work  with  costs  about  forty 
cents  per  year  for  each  pupil. 

The  foregoing  is  respectfully  submitted, 

C.  H.  Bailky. 

D.  U.  McKinney. 

S.  K.  Stevenson. 


REPORTS  AND  RECORDS. 

By  Mr.  H.  C.  Dorcas,  State  University. 

It  is  just  as  important  to  gain  an  accurate  knowledge  of  general 
and  special  tendencies  in  the  educational  theory  and  practice  of  a 
state  as  to  gain  such  a knowledge  of  the  industries  and  commerce  of 
that  state.  Such  tendencies  can  be  discovered  and  made  the  basis 
of  intelligent  further  provision  for  the  educational  needs  of  the  state 
through  the  periodic  gathering  of  certain  data  relative  to  general 
school  conditions,  and  through  a comparative  study  of  these  data. 
The  committee,  therefore,  solicits  the  cordial  co-operation  of  princi- 


17 


pals  of  hig-h  schools  and  city  superintendents  in  the  gathering  of 
such  information,  as  well  as  in  determining  what  sorts  of  informa- 
tion should  be  gathered.  Each  year  blanks  will  be  furnished  calling 
for  statistics  on  points  like  the  following: 

I.  TKACHKRS. 

1.  The  name  of  each  teacher  in  the  high  school. 

2.  His  academic  preparation  for  high  school  teaching. 

a.  Number  of  years  during  which  he  attended  a high  school 
or  academy. 

b.  A state  normal  school. 

c.  A college  or  university. 

d.  The  names  of  all  such  schools  which  he  attended. 

e.  The  academic  degree  (or  degrees)  which  he  holds. 

3.  His  professional  preparation  for  high  school  teaching. 

a.  Number  of  years  during  which  he  carried  on  distinctively 
pedagogical  studies  in  state  normal  school,  college  or 
university. 

b.  The  kind  of  teacher’s  certificate  he  holds  (or  has  held). 

(1) .  Grade  of  county  teacher’s  certificate. 

(2) .  State  teacher’s  certificate. 

(3) .  State  diploma. 

(4J.  State  certificate  in  special  subjects. 

4.  The  extent  of  his  experience  as  a teacher. 

a.  Number  of  months  in  rural  schools. 

b.  In  elementary  graded  schools. 

c.  In  high  schools  or  academies. 

d.  As  principal  or  superintendent. 

5.  Number  of  recitations  and  laboratory  exercises  which  he 

conducts  daily. 

6.  Names  of  the  branches  of  study  which  he  is  teaching. 

7.  His  monthly  salary. 

II.  PUPII.S. 

1.  Number  enrolled  in  the  high  school. 


a. 

9th  grade : Boys 

Girls  . 

-Total. 

b. 

10th  grade:  Boys 

—Girls.. 

Total 

c. 

11th  grade:  Boys 

___Girls_. 

Total. 

d. 

12th  grade:  Boys. 

-Girls. 

Total 

2.  Number  studying  in  each  of  the  five  or  six  main  groups  of 
subjects. 

a.  Greek. 

b.  Latin. 

c.  French. 

d.  German. 


18 


e.  Bng-lish  and  Literature. 

f.  History,  Civics,  etc. 
g-.  Mathematics. 

h.  Science. 

3.  Average  age  of  class  at  graduation, 

a.  Boys Girls 

4.  Number  who  go  (directly  from  the  high  school)  to  higher  in- 
stitutions of  learning  within  three  or  four  years  after  gradu- 
ation. 

a.  To  colleges  of  letters,  arts  or  science. 

b.  To  colleges  of  law. 

c.  To  colleges  of  medicine. 

d.  To  colleges  of  dentistry. 

e.  To  colleges  of  theology. 

f.  To  state  normal  schools. 

g.  To  higher  schools  of  agriculture  or  technology. 

III.  MATEJRIAIy  EQUIPMENT. 

1.  Building. 

2.  Library. 

3.  Apparatus  and  supplies. 

4.  Text-books  used. 

a.  Furnished  by  school? 

b.  Furnished  by  pupils? 


RECORDS. 

More  and  more  are  the  colleges,  universities  and  higher  techno- 
logical schools  admitting  students  by  the  certificate  plan.  It  is 
realized  that  it  is  difficult  to  determine,  by  means  of  a short  period 
of  examination  on  a rather  wide  range  of  subjects  and  in  the  midst 
of  more  or  less  strange  surroundings,  whether  the  applicant  for  ad- 
mission is  really  prepared  advantageously  to  pursue  the  higher 
courses  of  study.  It  is  fairly  well  known  that  not  infrequently  ap- 
plicants who  are  really  well  fitted  for  carrying  on  more  advanced 
studies  fail  to  indicate  their  fitness  in  the  formal  entrance  examina^ 
tions ; and  that  often  others  who  are  really  poorly  prepared  for  col- 
lege work  pass  such  entrance  examinations  successfully. 

There  is  large  wa.rrant  for  the  belief  that  the  certificate  of  the 
high  school  principal,  specifying  the  extent  and  character  of  the 
pupil’s  high  school  work  in  each  of  the  subjects  pursued  by  him, 
and  specifically  recommending  him  as  capable  of  going  forward 
with  advanced  studies,  is  better  evidence  of  the  pupil’s  preparation 
for  college  work  than  entrance  examination  papers  can  be. 


19 


Therefore,  the  making*  and  preserving  of  adequate  records  of 
pupils’  hig-h  school  work  becomes  a thing*  of  much  importance. 
Every  pupil  who  graduates  from  a high  school,  and  even  every  pupil 
who  successfully  completes  the  work  or  one  or  more  entire  terms 
or  semesters  is  entitled  to  the  assurance  that  he  can  have,  at  any 
time  after  he  leaves  the  school,  a complete  certified  record  of  what- 
ever high  school  work  he  has  done,  adequate  for  the  reasonable 
needs  of  any  college  or  school  of  technology  which  admits  students 
by  certificate.  The  school  owes  this  to  each  pupil  as  much  as  it  owes 
him  an  education. 

To  this  end  it  is  certainly  worth  while  to  consider  carefully  the 
following  four  questions: 

1.  What  data  should  such  records  include? 

2.  What  is  the  most  convenient  and  the  best  form  in  which  to 
arrange  and  preserve  these  data? 

3.  How  can  the  danger  of  the  loss  or  destruction  of  such  records 
be  most  certainly  avoided? 

4.  What  is  the  most  practicable  means  of  making  these  records 
available  immediately  upon  request,  at  any  time  within  ten 
or  more  years  after  tlie  pupil  has  left  the  school? 

The  following  suggestions  are  given  on  these  points,  each  in  its 
turn,  not  because  they  are  deemed  the  best  that  can  be  offered,  but 
in  the  hope  that  better  ones  may  be  forthcoming  and  generally 
adopted: 

1.  The  data  to  be  included. 

a.  Name  of  the  high  school. 

b.  Name  of  the  pupil. 

c.  Date^of  the  issuance  of  the  certificate. 

d.  Date  of  graduation  or  withdrawal  from  the  school. 

e.  Age  of  the  pupil  at  graduation  or  withdrawal. 

f.  Name>f  each  particular  branch  of  study  pursued  by  the 
pupil. 

g.  Numberlof  terms  (or  semesters)  during  which  he  pursued 
each  branch. 

h.  Length  in  weeks  of  the  term  (or  semester) . 

i.  Number  of  recitations  or  laboratory  periods  per  week  in 
eachibranch. 

j.  Length  in*minutes  of: 

a.  The  regular  recitation  period. 

b.  The  regular  laboratory  exercise. 

k.  Text-books  used. 

l.  Average  standing  in  each  branch  of  study. 

m.  A specific  recommendation  of  the  pupil  as  to  his  charac- 
ter, studiousness  and  ability  to  carry  on  college  studies 
successfully. 


20 


2.  The  form  in  which  to  arrange  and  preserve  pupil’s  records. 
Many  good  forms  have  been  and  may  be  devised,  and  it 
would  be  folly  to  specify  any  one  of  them  as  certainly  the 
best.  However,  two  general  forms  may  be  suggested,  either 
of  which  should  answer.  In  this  connection  it  is  suggested 
and  recommended, in  view  of  the  decided  tendency  inlowa  high 
schools  to  divide  the  school  year  into  semesters  for  admin- 
strative  purposes,  and  the  further  decided  tendency  to  require 
one  half-year’s  work,  or  some  multiple  thereof,  in  each  branch 
of  study  introduced  into  the  program  of  studies  that  a credit- 
unit,  named  and  defined  as  follows,  be  generally  adopted  in 
the  making  and  reporting  of  pupils’  high  school  records; 

One  term-hour — one  study  once  a week  during  one  semester  (a 
semester  being  18,  19  or  20  weeks  in  length). 

The  two  general  forms  for  making  pupils’*  records  given  below 
are  constructed  in  accordance  with  a credit-unit  as  defined  above. 

a.  A substantial  book  specially  ruled  and  printed  for  the 
purpose  and  in  such  a way  that  each  pupil’s  work  may  be 
recorded  as  he  completes  each  half-year  or  year  section  of 
it,  and  so  that  his  entire  high  school  record,  including 
the  data  mentioned  above  under  1,  may  appear  on  on^ 
page.  The  book  should  be  of  first  class  material  and 
bound  in  the  most  substantial  way.  It  should  be  worth 
preserving  carefully,  for  itself  as  well  as  for  the  records 
which  it  contains,  and  should  be  large  enough  to  last 
through  several  years.  The  form  suggested  is  given 
herewith.  It  constitutes  one  page  of  the  book  mentioned, 
upon  which  the  records  of  as  many  as  twenty  pupils  can 
be  made.  All  figures,  letters  and  words  appearing 
in  script  do  not  belong  to  the  form,  but  illustrate  the 
method  of  filling  out  the  form. 

(See  Table  I on  inserted  page.) 

b.  Cards,  or  heavy  sheets  of  paper,  specially  ruled  and 
printed  for  the  purpose  and  cut  in  such  size  and  shape 
as  that  they  can  be  filed  in  one  of  the  several  kinds  of 
substantial  card  catalog  cases  now  used  in  the  best  mod- 
ern libraries.  These  cases  should  be  of  the  most  sub 
stantial  construction.  A form  of  card  is  here  given  as  an 
illustration. 


(See  Table  II  on  inserted  page.) 


I. 


BOOK  RBOORD. 


. (REVERSE  StDE)_ 


,IOWA,  HIGH  SCHOOL  NAME.  Doe,  John.  BORN  WHERE,  Scranton,  Penn.  John  Doe  v 

WHEN,  <9-/<S-’5j.  GRADUATED  OR  WlTHDREW,5-j/./p07.  TOTAL  TERM  HOURS,  160.  SEMESTERS.  18  WEEKS. 


1 as  of  good  moral  c 


21 


Its  dimensions  are  3^  by  6 inches  and  it  is  ruled  and 
printed  on  both  sides.  It  may  be  cut  conformably  to  any 
one  of  the  several  styles  of  locking-  apparatus.  The  one 
here  given  has  a round  hole  in  the  bottom  through  which 
passes  the  rod  that  locks  it  in  its  place  in  the  drawer. 
Upon  this  card  may  be  given  the  entire  high  school  re- 
cord of  each  pupil,  including  all  of  the  data  mentioned 
above  under  1.  As  each  half  year’s  work  is  completed 
the  record  may  be  permanently  entered  on  the  card.  All 
figures,  letters  and  words  in  italics  are  not  a part  of  the 
form,  but  merely  illustrate  the  method  of  filling  out  the 
form.  The  figures  immediately  to  the  right  of  the  names 
of  the  branches  of  study  indicate  the  number  of  term 
hours  of  work  in  each  of  these  branches  as  called  for  in 
the  course  of  study.  For  example,  algebra  is  studied 
daily  throughout  the  two  semesters  of  the  first  year— 10 
term  hours;  and  in  the  second  year,  daily  through  one 
semester— 5 term  hours,  while  plane  geometry  follows 
daily  during  the  second  semester— 5 term  hours.  The  fig- 
ures in  the  left  of  the  two  double  columns  headed  1st 
Sem.  and  2nd  Sem.  respectively,  indicate  the  average 
semester  standing  in  each  branch;  while  the  figures  in 
the  right  of  these  columns  indicate  the  numbers  of  term 
hours  made  by  this  pupil.  The  figures  in  the  column 
headed  “year”  indicate  the  calendar  years  in  which  this 
pupil  studied  each  branch,  and  the  figures  in  the  last 
column  under  “term  Hrs.”  show  the  total  number  of 
term  hours  made  by  this  pupil  in  each  branch. 

Bach  school  maintaining  several  courses  or  groups  of 
study  could  have  these  cards  printed  in  sets— one  for 
pupils  pursuing  the  classical  course,  another  for  pupils 
pursuing  the  scientific  course,  etc.,  and  in  this  way  avoid 
the  necessity  of  printing  the  names  of  all  proper  high 
school  subjects  on  all  the  cards. 

A copy  of  this  card  can  be  given  to  the  pupil  at  the  time 
he  graduates.  It  should  answer  the  purposes  of  any  coF 
lege  or  school  of  technology  which  admits  students  on 
the  certificate  plan,  and  will  be  accepted  by  all  of  the 
colleges  of  the  College  Department  of  the  Iowa  State 
Teachers’  Association.  If  a pupil  should  lose  his  card  at 
any  time  he  could  have  a duplicate  made — at  the  actual 
exifense  involved,  if  that  should  be  deemed  wise — from 
the  original  which  would  be  filed  away  in  the  card  cata- 
log case,  alphabetically  with  the  cards  of  the  other  mem- 
bers of  the  class. 

It  is  suggested  that  the  original  cards  be  of  good  and 


22 


rather  heavy  card-board;  but  that  all  copies,  for  distribu- 
tion to  the  pupils  be  of  heavy  paper  of  such  texture  that 
they  could  be  easily  folded  without  breaking-. 

Uniform  blanks  for  reporting  pupils’  high  school  credits 
to  any  of  the  colleges  of  the  College  Department  of  the 
Iowa  State  Teachers’  Association  may  be  obtained  at  any 
time  by  writing  to  the  President  of  any  one  of  these 
colleges. 

3.  How  guard  against  the  danger  of  loss  or  destruction  by  fire, 
of  these  records? 

This  is  a question  to  be  very  carefully  considered  by  school 
superintendents  and  boards  of  education.  They  should  take 
the  same  care  and  be  at  the  same  expense  to  provide  a fire- 
proof receptacle  in  which  to  preserve  pupils’  records,  and 
should  realize  the  same  responsibility  for  the  proper  making 
and  preserving  of  such  records,  as  would  be  expected  in  the 
case  of  the  records  in  the  offices  of  the  county  clerk,  county 
recorder  or  county  treasurer.  The  pupils  are  entitled  to 
copies  of  these  records  at  any  time  on  any  working  day  in 
any  year  after  they  leave  school,  as  long  as  there  is  any 
possibility  of  their  needing  them. 

School  boards  are  therefore  earnestly  urged  to  provide  either 
a suitable  record  book  specially  ruled  and  printed,  made  of 
the  best  material  and  most  substantially  bound;  or  suitable 
cards,  specially  printed  and  ruled  and  made  of  the  best  card- 
board, and  an  ample,  substantially  built  card  case  with  one 
of  the  most  approved  locking  devices,  in  which  to  file  them; 
and  finally  a fire  proof  receptacle  in  which  to  keep  them  safe 
from  loss  or  destruction. 

4.  How  to  make  these  records  immediately  available  upon 
request. 

Over  and  over  again  it  has  happened  that  pupils  could  not 
secure  a certified  copy  of  their  high  school  records  when  they 
most  needed  it  simply  because  the  only  person  who  could 
gain  access  to  them  was  not  within  reach.  The  most  prac- 
tical suggestion  that  occurs  to  us  is  that  of  giving  to  each 
pupil  at  his  graduation  a duplicate  of  his  permanent  record 
card,  and  in  this  way  lessen,  as  much  as  possible,  the  num- 
ber of  those  who  at  inopportune  times  would  want  certified 
copies  of  their  records.  In  addition  to  this,  one  of  the  school 
officers,  who  will  be  most  likely  to  be  in  town  during  the  ab- 
sence of  the  superintendent,  should  have  access  to  the  recep- 
tacle in  which  the  records  and  record  blanks  are  kept.  This 
school  officer  should  carefully  guard  the  records  in  his  keep- 
ing and  should  always  be  ready  to  supply  any  pupil  request- 
ing it,  a copy  of  his  record. 

Finally,  the  committee  suggests  and  recommends  that  when- 


23 


ever  an  accredited  high  school  receives  pupils  with  advanced 
standing:,  whether  these  pupils  come  from  other  accredited 
schools  or  not,  the  principal  specif  particularly  in  the  pnpiVs 
permanent  record  or  on  his  permanent  record  card  just  what 
credits  he  accepts  from  that  other  school,  exactly  as  he  would 
if  recording  credits  regularly  earned  in  his  own  school;  and 
that  he  indicate  clearly  the  name  of  the  school  from  which 
such  credits  are  accepted. 

Similarly,  whenever  any  pupil,  either  in  his  own  school,  or 
coming  from  another  school,  secures  credit  by  merely  passing 
examinations y and  without  the  regular  daily  exercises  of  the 
class,  the  principal  should  indicate  clearly  the  manner  in 
which  the  credit  was  secured,  designating  at  the  same  time 
the  amount  of  work  for  which  the  credit  is  given,  in  the  usual 
way. 

IMPORTANT  EDUCATIONAL  DOCUMENTS. 

Prepared  by  the  Committee. 

The  committee  calls  attention  to  some  documents  of  great  value 
to  high  school  principals  and  to  school  boards  which  should  be  sub- 
jects of  ready  reference. 

The  first  of  these  is  the  report  of  the  committee  on  secondary 
school  studies,  appointed  at  the  meeting  of  the  National  Educational 
Association  in  1892,  popularly  known  as  the  Report  of  the  Commit- 
tee of  Ten.  It  was  issued  from  the  government  printing  office  in 
1893.  For  the  convenience  of  those  who  may  not  have  the  document 
or  who  may  not  have  time  to  make  a careful  study  of  it,  we  here- 
with insert  two  of  the  four  courses  of  study  there  outlined,  with  the 
paragraphs  which  immediately  precede  and  follow  the  same.  The 
course  outlined  by  our  own  committee  was  originally  based  upon 
the  latin- scientific  course  of  this  committee  of  ten,  modified  to  meet 
what  seemed  the  needs  of  Iowa  schools. 

This  report  says:  “The  most  striking  differences  in  the  four 

programmes  will  be  found,  as  is  intimated  in  the  headings,  in  the 
relative  amounts  of  time  given  to  foreign  languages.  In  the  classi- 
cal programme  the  foreign  languages  get  a large  share  of  time;  in 
the  English  programme  a small  share.  In  compensation,  English 
and  history  are  more  developed  in  the  English  programme  than  in 
the  classical. 

“Many  teachers  will  say,  at  first  sight,  that  physics  comes  too 
early  in  these  programmes  and  Greek  too  late.  One  member  of  the 
committee  is  firmly  of  the  opinion  that  Greek  comes  too  late.  The 
explanation  of  the  positions  assigned  to  these  subjects  is  that  the 
committee  of  ten  attached  great  importance  to  two  general  princi- 
ples in  programme  making: — In  the  first  place  they  endeavored  to 


24 


postpone  till  the  third  year  the  g-rave  choice  between  the  classical 
course  and  the  latin-scientific.  They  believed  that  this  bifurcation 
should  occur  as  late  as  possible,  since  the  choice  between  these  two 
roads  often  determines  for  life  the  youth’s  career.  Moreover,  they 
believed  that  it  is  possible  to  make  this  important  decision  for  a boy 
on  good  grounds,  only  when  he  has  had  opportunity  to  exhibit  his 
quality  and  discover  his  tastes  by  making  excursions  into  all  the 
principal  fields  of  knowledge.  The  youth  who  has  never  studied 
any  but  his  native  language  cannot  know  his  own  capacity  for 
linguistic  acquisition;  and  the  youth  who  has  never  made  a chemi- 
cal or  physical  experiment  cannot  know  whether  or  not  he  has  a 
taste  for  exact  science. 


25 


TABLE  IV, 


YBA.R 

CLASSICAL  LANGUAGES.  THREE 
FOREIGN,  (one  modern.) 

LATIN-SCIENTIFIC.  TWO  FOR- 
EIGN LANGUAGES  (one  MOD.) 

I. 

Latin 5 p. 

English 4 p. 

Algebra 4 p. 

History. 4p. 

Physical  Geography 3 p. 

20  p. 

Latin 5p. 

English 4 p. 

Algebra 4 p. 

History — 4 p. 

Physical  Geography 3 p. 

20  p. 

II. 

Latin_  5 p. 

English 2 p* 

*German  {or  French) 

begun 4 p. 

Geometry --  3p. 

Physics 3 p. 

History 3p. 

20  p. 

Latin 5 p- 

English 2p. 

German  {or  French) 

begun 4 p. 

Geometry __  3 p. 

Physics 3 p. 

Botany  or  Zoology 3 p. 

20  p. 

III. 

Latin 4 p. 

*Greek  5 p. 

English 3p. 

German  {or  French)  4 p. 

Mathematics  (Algebra 
2)  (Geometry  2) 4 p. 

20  p. 

Latin 4 p. 

English 3 p. 

German  {or  French) 4 p. 

Mathematics  (Algebra  2) 

(Geometry  21 4 p. 

Astronomy  yi.  yr.  and  Me- 

teorlogy  % yr 3p. 

History 2 p. 

20p. 

IV. 

Latin 4p. 

Greek--- - 5 p. 

English 2 p. 

German  {or  French) 3 p. 

Chemistry 3 p. 

Trigonometry  and  High- 
er Arithmetic  or  Hist.-  3 p. 

20  p. 

Latin 4 p. 

English  (as  in  Classical  2) 
(additional  2) 4 p. 

German  {or  French) 3 p. 

Chemistry 3 p. 

Trigonometry  and  Higher 
Arithmetic  or  History. _ 3 p. 

Geology  or  Physiography 
Yz  yr.  and  Anatomy, 
Physiology  and  Hy- 
giene yr 3 p. 

20  p. 

*“In  any  school  in  which  Greek  can  be  better  taught  than  a modern  language,  or  in 
which  local  public  opinion  or  the  history  of  the  school  makes  it  desirable  to  teach  Greek  in  an 
ample  way,  Greek  may  be  substituted  for  German  or  French  in  the  second  year  of  the  classi- 
cal programme. 

“The  wisest  teacher  or  the  most  observant  parent,  can  hardly 
predict  with  confidence  a boy’s  gift  for  a subject  which  he  has  never 
touched.  In  these  considerations  the  committee  found  strong  rea- 


26 


sons  for  postponing  bifurcation,  and  making  the  subjects  of  the  first 
two  years  as  truly  representative  as  possible.  Secondly,  inasmuch 
as  many  boys  and  girls  who  begin  the  secondary  school  course  do 
not  stay  in  school  more  than  two  years,  the  committee  thought  it 
important  to  select  the  studies  of  the  first  two  years  in  such  a way 
that  linguistic,  historical,  mathematical  and  scientific  studies  should 
all  be  properly  represented.  Natural  history  being  presented  by 
physical  geography,  the  committee  wished  physics  to  represent  the 
inorganic  sciences  of  precision.  The  first  two  years  of  any  one  of 
the  four  programmes  presented  above  will,  in  the  judgment  of  the 
committee,  be  highly  profitable  by  themselves  to  children  who  go  no 
farther. 

‘‘In  the  construction  of  the  sample  programmes  the  committee 
adopted  twenty  as  the  maximum  number  of  weekly  periods,  but 
with  two  qualifications,  namely,  that  at  least  five  of  the  twenty 
periods  should  be  given  to  unprepared  work,  and  that  laboratory 
subjects  should  have  double  periods  whenever  the  prolongation 
should  be  possible. 

“The  omission  of  music,  drawing  and  elocution  from  the  pro- 
grammes  offered  by  the  committee  was  not  intended  to  imply  that 
these  subjects  ought  to  receive  no  systematic  attention.  It  was 
merely  thought  best  to  leave  it  to  local  school  authorities  to  deter- 
mine, without  suggestions  from  the  committee,  how  these  subjects 
should  be  introduced  into  the  programmes  in  addition  to  the  subjects 
reported  on  by  the  conferences. “ 

OTHEJR  IMPORTANT  DOCUMENTS  ARE: 

The  report  of  the  committee  on  college  entrance  requirements, 
made  before  the  National  Educational  Association,  Los  Angeles, 
California,  July,  1899.  This  may  be  read  in  the  published  proceed- 
ings of  that  body  for  the  year  1899,  page  632  et  seq.  It  has  also  been 
published  separately  under  the  title  “Report  of  Committee  on  Col- 
lege Entrance  Requirements,  July,  1899.  “ (The  University  of  Chi- 
cago Press).  In  addition  to  the  said  report.  Part  II,  of  this  publi- 
cation contains  the  report  of  the  committee  of  twelve  of  the  Ameri- 
can Philological  Association  on  courses  in  Latin  and  Greek  in  second- 
ary schools;  the  report  of  the  committee  of  twelve  on  the  Modern 
Language  Association  of  America;  the  report  of  the  committee  of 
seven  on  the  American  Historical  Association;  the  report  of  the 
Chicago  section  of  the  American  Mathematical  Society;  and  numer- 
ous valuable  scientific  reports. 

Consult  also  a valuable  report  under  the  title  of  “Department  of 
Secondary  Education”  in  the  proceedings  of  the  National  Educa- 
tional Association  in  1898,  page  664  et  seq.  Special  attention  is  there 
given  to  English. 

Much  valuable  information  may  be  had  from  the  annual  reports 
of  the  National  Educational  Association,  year  by  year.  They  may 
be  secured  through  Mr.  Irwin  Shepard,  Secretary  N.  E.  A.,  Winona, 
Minn. 


Part  II. 

HIGH  SCHOOL  COURSE  OF  STUDY. 

Adopted  by  the  Iowa  State  Teachers*  Association,  Dec.  29, 1899. 


FIRST  YKAR. 

Latin 5 

Algebra 5 

English 4 

History  (Ancient  history  preferred) 5 

SECOND  YEAR. 

Latin ; 5 

Algebra  for  first  half  of  year 4 

Concrete  Geometry  (Option  B)  half  year 4 

English 3 

History  (Modern  or  advanced  United  States) 3 

Science  (From  Group  A) 4 

THIRD  YEAR. 

Latin 5 

Plane  Geometry • 5 

English 3 

French,  German  or  Greek  (Option  A) 5 

FOURTH  YEAR. 

Latin 4 

English 3 

Physics___» 4 

Political  Economy,  one-half  year 3 

Civics,  one-half  year 3 

French,  German  or  Greek  (Option  B) 5 

Note.  Subjects  printed  in  heavy  faced  type  are  constant;  those  m ordinary  type  admit 
of  option — that  is,  the  subjects  noted  below  may  be  taken  instead  of  those  in  the  lijfht  faced 
type,  with  full  and  equivalent  credit. 


28 


OPTIONS. 


Group  A-SCIKNCB. 


Second  Year  oe  Course.— Botany  throug-hout  the  year  pre- 
ferred; Zoology  throughout  the  year,  second  choice.  A half  year  of 
either  of  these  subjects  with  second  half  of  the  year  given  to  Physiog- 
raphy or  Physiology  or  Geology  or  Astronomy  will  be  accepted, 
but  the  one  continous  study  is  decidedly  preferred. 

Third  Year  oe  Course.— Instead  of  French,  German  or  Greek, 
one  full  year  of  Botany,  Zoology  or  Chemistry;  provided,  it  has  not 
been  selected  in  second  year. 


Group  B-MATHEMATICS. 


Second  Year  oe  Course. — Instead  of  Concrete  Geometry,  Ad- 
vanced Arithmetic  or  Book-keeping  may  be  taken. 

Fourth  Year  oe  Course. — Instead  of  French,  German  or  Greek, 
one-half  year  of  Solid  Geometry  and  one-half  year  of  Trigonometry 
may  be  taken. 

The  course  contemplates  nineteen  recitations  per  week.  Music, 
Free-Hand  Drawing  or  Manual  Training  may  be  pursued  in  addition  to 
these  if  desired;  otherwise  there  should  not  be  more  than  twenty 
recitations  of  thirty  to  thirty-five  minutes  each  per  week. 


BOTANY. 

To  lay  out  a course  in  any  science,  as  botany,  is  a problem  sur- 
rounded with  difficulties  by  no  means  small.  The  subject  is  so 
large,  so  many  sided  that  the  methods  of  approach  are  of  necessity 
diverse.  Professors  of  the  science  are  in  this  particular  by  no  means 
agreed,  and  almost  every  prominent  teacher  of  the  subject  has'  a 
method  of  his  own.  Text-books  in  elementary  botany  are  many  and 
varied;  nearly  all  good,  each  in  its  way,  and  in  its  own  field;  so  that 
it  is  hardly  to  be  hoped,  much  less  expected,  that  what  rqay  be  said 
here  will  meet  with  such  general  approval  as  might  be  accorded,  for 
instance,  to  a similar  outline  in  arithmetic  or  German.  Further- 
more, the  method  of  presenting  the  subject  must  be,  ought  to  be, 
determined  very  largely  by  local  conditions,  not  only  of  the  teaching 
force,  but  of  natural  surroundings.  Botany  by  the  Mississippi  river, 
for  example,  might  be  one  thing;  in  a prairie  village,  quite  another. 


29 


Again,  we  must  always  have  regard  to  the  end  in  view.  This  is 
primarily  the  practical  advantage  of  the  pupil,  his  information  and 
instruction  as  a possible  citizen,  and  the  botany  we  give  him  should 
have  respect  to  this  particular  thing.  This  being  admitted,  it  seems 
plain  that  any  presentation  of  the  science  which  leaves  the  pupil 
ignorant  of  his  own  environment  and  of  his  relations  to  the  common 
plants  about  him,  fails  in  just  so  far  of  the  purpose  for  which  botanic 
studies  are  offered  in  the  public  schools. 

Once  more:  the  character  of  the  work  attempted  must  in  some 
measure  depend  upon  the  time  which  may  be  devoted  to  the  subject. 
The  committee,  however,  has  not  had  in  mind  in  any  case  a course 
of  more  than  one  year. 

Your  committee  is  agreed  that  elementary  botany  should  be 
largely  that  which  is  called  structural;  at  no  point  should  the  life- 
relations  of  the  plant  be  considered  apart  from  the  structure.  Ele- 
mentary botany  should  deal  at  first  chiefly  with  the  gross  anatomy 
and  make-up  of  our  familiar  plants,  especially  the  common  plants  of  , 
the  locality  in  question.  The  pupil  should  be  taught  to  observe; 
his  lessons  to  the  very  largest  extent  possible,  should  be  out  of 
doors.  He  should  learn  the  characteristics  of  various  sorts  of  plants, 
their  habits  and  the  conditions  under  which  they  flourish.  In  doing 
this  he  should  be  taught  to  observe  plants  at  all  seasons  and  in  all 
phases.  The  second  half  of  the  school  year,  as  now  constituted, 
affords  opportunity  for  doing  this,  as  we  have  winter,  spring  and 
summer  conditions,  all  within  the  period  named.  The  pupils  must 
never  be  taught  simply  words  and  their  definitions ; this  is  the  fault 
of  certain  otherwise  excellent  text-books.  On  the  other  hand  the 
pupil  should  acquire  his  vocabulary  naturally,  that  is,  as  he  needs  it. 
By  taking  up  the  study  of  plants  where  they  are  and  as  they  are,  by 
cultivating  plants  indoors,  in  sand,  by  all  inexpensive  ways,  the 
pupils  will  gradually  come  into  possession,  not  only  of  the  leading 
facts  as  to  the  structure  or  make-up  of  the  ordinary  flowering  plant, 
but  will  learn  its  principal  activities  as  well.  Some  of  our  trees,  for- 
tunately some  of  the  most  common,  afford  excellent  subjects  for 
elementary  botany  study;  they  stand  leafless  with  the  sleep  of  win- 
ter, they  break  into  bloom,  they  put  forth  their  leaves,  they  grow  in 
height,  in  thickness,  they  form  their  fruit,  the  fruit  germinates  and 
forms  a new  plant  all  within, the  time  limit  as  here  supposed. 

In  addition  to  such  simple  work  as  this,  some  simple  flowering 
plant  may  be  studied  when  the  time  of  flowering  comes — a Trillium, 
a Ranunculus ; this  to  show  to  better  advantage  the  perfection  flow- 
ers attain  in  matters  of  color,  size,  odor,  and  their  relations  to  the 
insect  world.  In  any  event,  whatever  plants  are  studied,  others  of 
the  same  natural  order  should  be  presented  at  the  same  time,  or  as 
soon  thereafter  as  possible,  in  order  that  the  pupil  obtain  some  con- 
ception of  the  relationships  of  plants  to  each  other,  their  natural 


30 


kinship,  and  the  signs  by  which  such  kinship  may  be  discovered  or 
confirmed.  The  same  principle  obtains,  of  course,  for  the  crypto- 
gamic  world,  if  the  teacher  elect  to  begin  investigations  there. 

Not  only  may  plants  be  thus  studied  in  groups  as  related  to  each 
other,  but  they  should,  where  opportunity  offers,  be  studied  as 
grouped  in  the  field.  Find  out  every  plant  growing  spontaneously 
in  the  same  grove  or  thicket,  for  example.  It  will  now  be  necessary 
to  name  the  plants  in  some  way.  The  two  volumes  last  named  in 
the  appended  list  are  lexicons  for  the  purpose  we  have  now  in  view. 
In  this  way  it  will  presently  appear  that  members  of  various  natural 
orders  are  often  more  closely  associated  in  the  field  than  are  the 
most  closely  related  members  of  any  one  order,  etc.,  etc. 

The  utility  of  plants  should  be  made  a matter  of  investigation. 
Those  that  furnish  food  should  be  recognized  and  listed;  those  that 
furnish  fuel,  lumber,  shelter;  food  for  domestic  animals;  protection 
for  the  soil  against  water  or  wind;  protection  of  water  supply,  as  the 
rivulet  or  spring,  the  lake  shore;  those  that  are  useful  for  ornament 
to  adorn  our  homes  and  farms. 

Such  in  general  is  the  ground  which,  in  the  judgment  of  your 
committee,  should  be  covered  by  one  who  assays  to  teach  the  science 
of  botany  in  our  public  schools.  We  believe  the  work  practicable, 
and  we  mean  it  to  be  practical.  The  course  can  be  indefinitely  ex- 
tended. In  schools  fitted  up  with  laboratories,  microscopes,  etc.,  as 
all  our  high  schools  eventually  must  be,  the  cellular  anatomy  and 
physiology  of  plants  may  be  presented;  plant  diseases  may  become 
a matter  of  investigation,  but  in  no  case  should  such  work  be  allowed 
to  supercede  that  already  outlined.  If  an  entire  year  can  be  given 
to  the  subject  so  much  the  better;  even  in  the  non-growing  season 
the  investigation  of  the  winter  condition  of  buds  and  stems,  the  study 
of  germinating  the  seeds  and  microscopic  investigation  of  alcoholic 
material  will  afford  ample  opportunity  for  profitable  work.  The 
spring  and  summer  may  then  be  given  to  acquiring  a more  perfect 
acquaintance  with  the  flora  of  the  locality,  both  phenogamic  and 
cr5^ptogamic,  and  to  the  investigation  of  such  problems  in  plant 
physiology,  distribution,  habit,  as  the  immediate  region  may  sug- 
gest. 

In  view  of  the  multitude  of  excellent  texts  on  this  particular  sub- 
ject your  committee  prefers  not  to  recommend  any.  A good  teacher 
should  have  on  the  table  copies  of  all.  The  following  list  contains 
the  names  of  the  more  prominent  recent  text-books  on  botany: 

Arthur,  Barnes  and  Coulter,  Plant  Dissection;  Atkinson,  Ele- 
mentary Botany;  Bailey,  Lessons  with  Plants;  Barnes,  Outlines  of 
Plant  Life;  Bergen,  Elementary  Botany;  Bessey,  Essentials  of 
Botany;  Coulter,  Plant  Relations;  Coulter,  Plant  Structures;  Darwin. 
Elements  of  Botany;  Ganong,  The  Teaching  Botanist;  Geddes, 
Chapters  in  Modern  Botany;  Gray,  School  and  Field-Book;  Mac- 


31 


bride,  Elementary  Lessons  in  Botany;  Spalding-,  Introduction  to 
Botany;  Strasburger  and  Hillhouse,  Practical  Botany;  Vines,  Stu- 
dent’s Text-Book  of  Botany;  Gray’s  Manual  of  the  Botany  of  the 
Northern  United  States;  Britton’s  Manual  of  the  Flora  of  the  North- 
ern States  and  Canada;  Strasburger,  Noel  & Schenck,  and  Slimper, 
Text-Book  of  Botany,  English  translation  by  H.  C.  Porter. 

T.  H.  Macbride, 

L.  H.  Pammei.. 

Perhaps  no  paper  submitted  was  more  extendedly  or  severely 
criticised  than  the  above  outline  for  botany.  Great  care  has  been 
taken  by  the  committee  in  the  revision.  Both  Professor  Macbride  and 
Professor  Pammel  went  carefully  over  the  entire  list  of  criticisms  and 
made  revisions  in  accordance  therewith.  The  following  paragraphs 
from  the  letter  of  Professor  Pammel  following  his  revision  of  the  paper 
are  so  suggestive  that  they  are  herewith  presented.  He  says: 

'‘The  criticisms  are,  I think,  on  the  whole  very  good,  but  to 
some  I must  take  exceptions.  I have  done  some  work  along  eco- 
logical lines.  The  present  status  of  the  subject  is  such  that  this  mat- 
ter will  have  to  be  taught  in  a very  guarded  way.  The  whole  nomen- 
clature of  this  subject  will  need  revision.  If  the  nomenclature  of 
some  of  the  authors  is  used  the  subject  is  so  complex  that  a high 
school  student  will  not  get  much  out  of  it. 

“Certain  fundamental  facts  can  be  learned  by  the  student. 
Bailey’s  Lessons  with  Plants,  and  Bergen’s  Botany  present  the  sub- 
ject in  an  admirable  manner.  I think  Macbride’s  book  is  a most  ex- 
cellent one,  not  only  because  of  its  literary  excellence,  but  for  the 
subject  matter.  As  to  Dr.  Gray’s  Lessons  and  Manual,  they  need  no 
defense.  Dr.  Gray’s  Lessons  is  the  best  American  text-book  that 
has  ever  been  written  on  the  subject  of  structural  botany  of  flowering 
plants,  notwithstanding  the  criticism  of  some.  The  teacher  who 
cannot  adapt  himself  to  the  needs  of  our  schools  should  not  teach 
botany. 

‘ ‘ I think  the  great  trouble  with  high  schools  is  that  they  offer 
too  much  work  for  the  time  given.  I have  had  high  school  scholars 
who  were  not  able  to  tell  me  what  the  simple  terms  in  descriptive 
botany  meant. 

“ After  all,  for  what  do  we  study  botany  in  high  schools  or  col- 
leges? 

1.  The  utilitarian  idea. 

2.  To  train  our  powers  of  observation. 

3.  That  we  may  derive  some  pleasure  from  the  study  of  plants 
after  our  course  in  the  high  school  or  college  is  completed. 

“Very  few  of  the  scholars  of  a high  school  or  students  in  college 
will  become  botanists.  The  second  object  of  the  study  of  plants  is 
most  important.  No  other  science  is  so  valuable  to  train  the  powers 
of  observation  as  botany,  for  the  reason  that  the  material  may  be 


32 


had  readily.  I believe  that  in  structural  botany  material  should  be 
more  freely  used  than  it  is.  It  is  a mistake  to  have  the  student 
earn  long-  names  without  laboratory  material. 

“As  to  the  third  object;  this  is  important  for  the  person  who  will 
engage  in  business  or  the  professions . It  will  give  the  man  or  woman 
added  pleasure  to  know  what  a plant  is  and  how  to  trace  it  out. 
By  knowing  plants  they  mean  more  to  him.  Structural  and  sys- 
tematic botany  should  be  taught  in  every  high  school.  I am  old 
fashioned  enough  to  believe  in  this  system. 

“ Physiological  botany  is  important,  and  the  fundamental  facts 
ought  to  be  given,  but  the  high  school  student  will  not  have  the  time 
to  go  into  this  subject  very  far.  This  applies  also  to  a study  of  fungi, 
algae,  and  lichens.”  L.  H.  Pamme^i,. 


CIVICS.— I. 

Among  the  many  signs  of  improvement  in  high  school  courses 
is  the  increasing  interest  in  those  branches  which  are  calculated  to 
add  intelligence  to  the  patriotism  of  our  young  Americans.  It  is  not 
enough  for  the  safety  of  a nation  that  her  citizens  shall,  in  their  pub- 
lic school  training,  h ave  become  acquainted  with  the  natural  sciences , 
mathematics  and  the  ancient  languages,  or  even  with  English  and 
American  literature.  Such  preparation  is  good  so  far  as  it  goes,  but 
specific  and  somewhat  extended  instruction  in  government  as  it  has 
been,  is,  and  as  it  ought  to  be,  is  essential  to  a wise  use  of  the  pre- 
rogatives of  citizenship,  if  the  municipal,  state  and  national  reforms 
so  loudly  demanded  are  ever  to  be  brought  about.  Accurate  econo- 
mic knowledge  is  also  necessary  if  our  future  legislators  are  to  give 
us  laws  that  shall  aid  in  improving  the  relations  of  employers  and 
labor,  of  trusts  and  the  public  rights,  or  of  foreign  trade  and  home 
industries. 

The  time  given  to  these  studies  should  be  extended  even  beyond 
the  recommendations  of  the  committee,  and  certainly  the  demands  of 
no  other  branch  should  be  allowed  to  encroach  on  the  meager  year 
allowed  in  the  proposed  course  to  civics  and  economics.  We  all 
know  that  the  first  term  in  any  branch  of  study  merely  gives  an  in- 
troduction, and  that  the  valuable  work  comes  through  further  study 
after  a foundation  has  been  laid  and  interest  awakened.  The  idea 
of  completing  United  States  and  Iowa  governments  in  one  term  of 
high  school  work  should  not  be  for  a moment  entertained.  Two 
tetms  is  the  very  least  time  that  should  be  given  to  these  studies, 
and  if  Iowa  civic  history  is  to  be  included,  a year’s  time  for  civics  is 
little  enough.  As  to  economics— any  of  the  excellent  texts  written 
for  high  school  classes,  e.  g.  Walker,  Uaughlin,  MacVane,  Daven- 
port call  for  at  least  two  terms  of  work.  Other  and  lighter  works  are 
either  too  light  or  not  up-to  date.  Even  the  simpler  and  more  funda- 


33 


mental  principles  of  economics  need  considerable  discussion,  illus- 
tration and  application  before  they  can  be  of  real  use  in  the  study 
of  the  questions  of  the  day,  or  the  intelligent  reading  of  reliable 
magazine  articles  upon  these  subjects.  An  intelligent  grasp  of  nor- 
mal price,  marginal  utility,  the  Ricardian  theory  of  rent,  the  princi- 
ples underlying  the  money  question,  is  not  to  be  secured  by  a swift 
and  ^ood  natured  reading  of  any  of  these  texts.  They  must  be 
studied,  and  every  point  discussed,  disputed  and  mastered.  If  two 
terms  cannot  be  allowed  to  this  study,  then  fewer  topics  should  be 
undertaken.  That  phase  of  United  States  and  English  history  which 
bears  upon  the  evolution  of  government,  trade  and  the  industries 
should  be  emphasized,  and  dull  indeed  must  be  the  teacher  who 
cannot  interest  his  classes  in  these  subjects.  The  mastery  of  funda- 
mental principles  and  definitions,  followed  by  the  freest  discussion, 
with  full  encouragement  of  differences  of  opinion,  will  make  larger 
interest  and  more  accurate  thinking,  and  lead  to  study  of  current 
events  in  the  newspapers,  and  a general  intelligence,  where  we  now 
find  utter  apathy  and  astonishing  ignorance. 

Every  high  school  should  have  “a  class-of-the-whole”  for  discuss- 
ing current  events  every  day  in  the  year.  The  lack  of  such  work  in 
the  high  school  should  be  a mark  of  a back  number.  Debates,  es- 
says and  orations  on  the  stirring  events  of  the  day  should  consti- 
tute an  interesting  and  profitable  portion  of  whatever  rhetoricals  oc- 
curs in  the  high  school  programs.  The  reading  and  discussion  of 
such  books  as  “The  Workers,”  “East”  and  “West,”  and  other  re- 
liable books  in  story  form,  describing  the  economic  and  civic  condi- 
tions of  our  day,  and,  for  that  matter,  of  the  past,  may  well  be  en- 
couraged and  even  directed  by  the  teacher  of  civics.  In  short  while 
teachers  in  other  departments  of  high  school  work  are  doing  so 
much  to  increase  interest  in  their  classes,  the  teachers  of  civics  and 
economics  must  show  equal  earnestness  and  devotion,  and  use  equal 
skill  in  creating  enthusiasm  in  these  branches  so  essential  to  the 
education  of  a citizen  in  a modern  republic. 

L.  W.  Parrish. 

CIVICS.— II. 

The  importance  of  civics  or  civil  government  in  the  schools  de- 
pends upon  our  view  of  the  purposes  of  education  in  general  and  of 
political  education  in  particular.  If  the  chief  purpose  of  public  edu- 
cation is  to  elevate  the  public  standards  of  citizenship  and  right  living, 
and  if  the  purpose  of  political  education  is  to  familiarize  the  people 
with  the  forms  and  processes  through  which  they  may  participate  in 
public  affairs,  then  there  can  no  longer  be  any  doubt  of  the  place  of 
civics  in  our  schools. 

Nor  should  this  subject  be  left  for  the  college  and  university 
curriculum.  It  should  be  taught  in  all  high  schools;  and  in  connec- 
tion with  history,  geography  and  literature  it  may  be  presented  in 


34 


grades  below  the  high  school.  In  the  broadest  sense  of  exalting 
citizenship,  suggesting  ideals  of  conduct,  and  inspiring  a love  for 
public  service,  civil  government  has  a place  in  every  school,  college 
and  university  in  the  land.  But  it  is  the  inspiration  of  high  stand- 
ards of  citizenship  and  right  living  rather  than  the  acquisition  of 
knowledge  concerning  the  forms  and  powers  of  government  that 
makes  the  study  of  civics  and  politics  worth  the  while.  The  success 
with  which  it  is  taught  will  depend  largely  upon  the  purpose  and 
character  of  the  teacher. 

There  is  no  one  right  way  of  teaching  a subject  like  civics.  Bach 
teacher  must,  to  a very  considerable  extent,  be  his  own  guide  and 
follow  his  own  methods.  To  follow  the  program  of  another  and  rely 
wholly  upon  text-books  is  to  assume  the  role  of  a task  master. 
Nevertheless,  texts  will  assist  and  suggestionsmayinspire.  Herein 
a few  suggestions  are  ventured. 

In  the  first  place,  an  attempt  should  be  made  to  bring  the  pupils 
to  a realization  of  their  citizenship.  They  should  be  filled  with  the 
idea  that  they  are  not  independent,  isolated  individuals,  but  mem- 
bers of  a larger  whole — the  family,  the  community,  the  city,  the  coun- 
try, the  state,  the  nation.  Then  they  should  be  made  to  see  that  the 
government — local,  state  and  national — under  which  they  live  is  sim- 
ply the  organization  of  the  people;  that  the  form  and  administration 
of  this  government  is  determined  by  the  people  acting  as  citizens; 
that  the  character  of  the  people  will  be  the  measure  of  the  standards 
of  the  government;  and  that  it  is  the  duty  of  all  to  participate  in  the 
administration  of  government,  to  the  extent,  at  least,  of  helping  to 
create  a sound  public  opinion.  In  short,  the  facts  relating  to  the 
form  and  organization  of  government  gathered  from  code,  statutes, 
constitutions  and  text-books  should  be  spiritualized  by  such  ideas 
as  these. 

And  the  teacher  himself  must  realize  that  he  is  assisting  in 
the  preparation  of  boys  and  girls,  young  men  and  young  women, 
for  intelligent,  useful  and  active  citizenship.  He  must  teach  civics 
ever  conscious  of  the  fact  that  the  highest  aim  of  political  educa- 
tion is  to  prepare  the  youth  for  citizenship  by  putting  the  empha- 
sis on  character,  and  by  inspiring  ideals  of  courage,  progress, 
loftiness  of  purpose,  sympathy,  unselfishness,  and  public  gener- 
osity. 

As  intimated  above,  it  would,  perhaps,  be  unwise  to  attempt  a 
systematic  course  in  civics  in  any  of  the  grades  below  the  high 
school.  And  yet  pupils  in  the  grammar  grades  may  be  somewhat 
informed  concerning  thegovernment  under  which  they  live  through 
the  courses  in  geography  and  history.  They  may  also  be  led  to 
seize  upon  many  ideals  of  public  service  and  patriotic  conduct 
through  a study  of  the  lives  of  great  citizens  and  statesmen.  Of 
course  it  cannot  be  expected  that  pupils  in  these  grades  will  read 
widely  in  the  literature  of  American  statesmanship;  but  the  nobler 


35 


traits  and  aspirations  of  great  citizens  like  Washington,  Jefferson, 
Madison,  Lincoln,  Greeley  and  Kirkwood,  can  easily  be  set  forth 
by  the  teacher  in  language  easily  comprehended  by  a child  of  8 
or  10  years.  To  get  children  to  reverence  and  cherish  the  ideals  in 
the  lives  of  these  great  men  will  be  of  far  more  value  than  to  force 
them  to  commit  to  memory  lists  of  township,  county  and  state  of- 
ficers. For,  after  all,  the  aim  of  political  education,  whether  in 
the  college,  university  or  secondary  schools,  is  the  formation  of 
character  through  the  adoption  of  ideals. 

In  the  eleventh  or  twelfth  grades  of  the  high  school  a system- 
atic course  in  civics  may  be  prescribed.  Here  a text  may  be 
used.  The  pupils  should  in  a very  general  way  be  familiarized 
with  the  form,  organization  and  workings  of  the  local,  state  and 
national  goverment  under  which  they  live. 

The  facts  relative  to  the  form  and  organization  of  the  govern- 
ment may  be  gathered  from  text-books,  the  constitution  and  the 
code.  But  such  facts  should  be  supplemented  by  talks  of  the 
rights,  duties,  privileges,  and  obligations  of  citizenship.  Compari- 
sons with  foreign  governments  may  be  introduced  with  good  re- 
sults. 

It  is,  of  course,  more  difficult  to  make  clear  the  workings  of 
government.  However,  something  in  this  direction  may  be  gained 
through  mock-conventions,  mock-elections,  mock-assemblies, 
mock-caucuses,  mock-congresses  and  the  like.  Where  practicable 
the  pupils  should  be  encouraged  to  visit  the  courts,  the  city  or 
village  councils,  and  the  state  legislature. 

The  first  work  in  civics  in  the  high  school  will  very  naturally 
be  given  in  connection  with  and  as  a part  of  history  and  geography. 
The  history  taught  should  be  local  history  and  state  history.  The 
geography  taught  should  be  the  geography  of  the  township,  coun- 
ty, city  and  state.  Thus  local  politics  may  be  studied  in  connec- 
tion with  local  geography  and  local  history. 

B.  F.  Shambaugh. 


ECONOMICS. 

The  place  in  the  course  of  the  high  school  which  economics 
has  so  far  made  for  itself  in  Iowa  high  schools  is  that  of  a single 
term-study  of  from  twelve  to  eighteen  weeks  in  the  last  year,  or  in 
the  year  preceding  the  last  year  of  the  prescribed  course  of  study. 
If  the  writer  is  not  mistaken  with  regard  to  what  he  considers  the 
present  place  of  economics  in  the  usual  high  school  course,  he 
will  venture  to  express  the  opinion  that  economics  has  now  about 
the  place  and  nearly  all  the  time  which  can  be  accorded  it  by  the 
side  of  the  other  subjects.  It  may  be  useful,  however,  that  in  all 
cases  where  the  study  of  economics  is  formally  undertaken  it 


36 


should  have  fully  one-half  of  the  school  year,  to  be  followed  or 
preceded  by  a good  high  school  course  in  the  elements  of  civil 
government  or  United  States  History. 

Something  may  be  said  with  regard  to  the  preparation  that  is 
made  for  the  study  of  economics  in  and  throughout  the  work  of  the 
lower  grades  and  during  the  first  year  or  two  of  the  high  school. 
Teachers  do,  perhaps,  not  see  with  sufficient  clearness  the 
amount  of  preparation  for  the  study  of  economics  that  may  be 
made  through  the  curriculum  of  the  grades  and  the  first  two  years 
of  the  high  school. 

Four  studies  expressly,  and  incidentally  a fifth,  prepare  the 
way  for  the  teaching  of  economics.  These  are:  arithmetic,  ^ 
geography,  history  and  civil  government.  The  fifth  is  reading,  if 
it  may  be  treated  separately.  All  of  these  bear  upon  the  study  of 
economics,  and  with  the  improved  methods  of  teaching  these  sub- 
jects as  actual  branches  of  knowledge  concerning  the  world  in 
which  we  live,  methods  which  have  been  making  their  way  into 
our  schools,  the  high  school  pupil  in  his  third  or  fourth  year  should 
be  prepared  to  take  up  economics  as  it  is  presented  in  such  a text 
as  that  of  Professor  Laughlin  or  that  of  the  late  President  Walker. 

To  point  the  relation  of  the  preliminary  studies  more  clearly, 
and  in  one  of  the  most  neglected  fields,  attention  is  called  to  the 
opportunities  which  the  teacher  of  arithmetic  and  the  teacher  of 
bookkeeping  have  to  give  their  pupils  information  of  detail  regarding 
the  course  of  commerce  and  the  usages  of  business  in  modern 
countries.  Such  a text  in  higher  arithmetic  as  that  of  Beeman 
and  Smith,  for  example,  would  furnish  an  admirable  opportunity 
for  excellent  collateral  work  by  a high  school  class  that  is  pursu- 
ing or  about  to  pursue  a course  of  study  in  theoretical  economics 
as  expounded  in  our  standard  text-books.  Physical  geography 
and  political  geography  may  each  in  their  own  way  contribute 
their  portion  of  object  matter  toward  furnishing  a concrete  basis 
for  the  discussion  of  domestic  as  well  as  international  trade. 

In  the  history  class  long  before  you  come  to  the  formal  study 
of  economics  there  are  many  opportunities  of  enforcing  the  teach- 
ings of  economic  science  by  evils  which  follow  from  a neglect  of 
those  teachings,  e.  g.  the  evils  of  a disordered  currency,  as  experi- 
enced in  the  Revolutionary  War,  or  the  dangers  of  irresponsible 
banking  as  illustrated  by  disorders  in  the  currency  connected  with 
our  wild-cat  banking  in  the  south-west  and  west  during  the  thirties 
and  forties  of  the  present  century. 

In  the  class  in  civil  government  the  occasion  for  having  gov- 
ernment at  all  may  be  studied  and  the  advantages  of  law  and  or- 
der in  their  reaction  upon  the  economic  welfare  of  the  people  may 
be  pointed  out  at  length. 

One  chief  obstacle  to  the  successful  teaching  of  economics  in 


37 


the  high  school  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  boys  and  girls  in  our  high 
schools  have  hardly  a sufficient  data  of  experience  to  enable  them 
to  comprehend  or  appreciate  the  broad  generalizations  which  are 
customarily  made  in  economic  science.  Therefore,  the  more  ac- 
tive and  intelligent  the  efforts  of  teachers  in  the  grades  and  co-or- 
dinate studies  in  the  high  school  itself  are,  to  furnish  the  mind 
with  objective  content,  real  knowledge  of  the  actual  works  in  its 
business  life  and  laws,  in  so  far  as  knowledge  of  these  can  be 
communicated  to  the  youth  in  the  school  room  from  day  to  day, 
the  more  probably  will  a high  school  class  profit  by  a course  in 
economics. 

The  importance,  or  perhaps  rather  the  possibilities,  of  such 
subjects  as  commercial  arithmetic  and  bookkeeping  can  only  be 
appreciated  by  the  teacher  who  is  himself  a wide-awake  citizen,, 
thoroughly  informed  and  appreciative  of  these  subjects  as  they 
reach  into  the  very  life  of  cur  busy  every-day  world.  Good  teach- 
ing along  these  lines,  supported  by  a correct  ethical  purpose,  is  of 
great  importance  toward  preventing  poor  teaching  and  yet  poorer 
learning  when  the  pupils  come  to  the  abstractions  of  economic 
science. 

One  word  now  on  the  teaching  of  economics  itself.  The  writer 
has  no  hesitation  in  saying  that  if  the  supplementary  and  pre- 
paratory work  which  he  has  sketched  could  be  well  done,  he  would 
prefer  to  see  economics  as  such  moved  into  the  college  and  uni- 
versity curriculum,  because  the  dangers  of  a superficial  study  of  a 
difficult  subject  are  always  considerable. 

It  is  perhaps  not  necessary  to  go  further  from  the  shore  than 
wading  depth,  and  the  precaution  to  keep  on  bottom  that  can  be 
fathomed  may  be  wisely  urged.  To  this  end  the  text  book  should 
always  be  well  selected.  In  economics  the  text-book  should  be 
strong,  clear  and  classical.  The  two  texts  above  referred  to  are 
good  examples  of  their  kind;  and  there  are  a few  other  good  texts 
for  high  school  classes.  That  of  Bullock  may  be  named. 

We  shall  by  and  by  have  books  which  deal  with  economic 
science  in  a more  descriptive  manner,  though  equally  scientific. 
Henry  W.  Thurston’s  Economics  and  Industrial  History  (Chicago,. 
1899)  is  a good  example  of  this  new  type  of  text-book,  but  it  re- 
quires a well  prepared  teacher  to  use  it.  A good  text-book  should 
be  calculated  to  furnish  knowledge,  and  develop  lines  of  reason- 
ing suitable  to  the  age  of  the  pupils.  Where  descriptive  work  can 
be  supplied  by  the  teacher,  who  is  however  seldom  prepared  to 
furnish  it,  the  high  school  class  has  a great  advantage. 

Isaac  A.  Loos. 


38 


COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC. 

I.  THINGS  TO  BE  ACCOMPLISHED* 

1.  The  pupil  should  be  made  to  acquire  the  ability  to  write 
English  that  shall  not  bear  the  mark  of  illiteracy. 

2.  He  must  be  given  enough  sense  of  style  to  enable  him  to 
vary  his  own  writing  to  make  it  conform  in  some  measure 
to  the  subject  he  has  in  mind. 

3.  He  must  be  taught  rhetorical  doctrine,  but  only  in  connec- 
tion with  his  own  exemplification  of  it  in  his  own  writing; 
he  must  be  trained  in  literary  judgment,  rather  than  in- 
formed in  regard  to  literary  laws. 

4.  To  accomplish  this  he  must  be  kept  busy  writing  until  by 
the  criticism  of  his  own  errors  he  has  learned  to  avoid 
them. 

5.  After  he  has  come  to  a knowledge  of  what  constitutes  cor- 
rectness in  English  he  should  be  given  training  in  the  qual- 
ities that  distinguish  literature  from  other  writing. 

II.  ORDER  OF  TREATMENT. 

1.  The  initial  difficulty  is  that  of  getting  pupils  to  write. 

2.  That  this  difficulty  may  be  lessened  the  work  should  first 
take  up  the  whole  theme  and  the  paragraph.  The  pupil 
should  be  directed  in  securing  material  from  experience, 
from  observation,  and  from  books;  and  in  this  fashion  his 
interest  in  the  problem  of  having  something  to  say  should 
be  quickened. 

3.  At  first  criticism  of  what  he  writes  should  not  go  beyond 
the  question  of  choice  and  arrangement  of  material,  except 
in  the  case  of  elementary  grammatical  errors. 

4.  From  the  paragraph  work  should  proceed  to  consideration 
of  the  sentence  words  and  questions  of  style. 

III.  METHOD  OF  TEACHING. 

1.  In  the  teaching  of  English  in  the  high  school  a suitable 
text  is  very  necessary.  Principles  of  literary  composition 
are  too  vague  for  the  pupil  to  be  able  to  hold  them  in  mind 

. without  having  , opportunity  to  think  them  over  from  the 
printed  page. 

2.  The  study  of  the  text,  however,  should  be  made  subordi- 
nate to  the  writing  of  themes,  and  in  this  the  student 
should  be  given  some  range  of  choice  in  the  matter  of  sub- 
jects. 

3.  Occasionally  all  members  of  the  class  should  be  compelled 
to  write  on  the  same  subject  and  comparison  between  the 
diiferent  compositions  made. 


39 


4.  All  criticisms  of  themes  should  be  made  as  definite  as 
possible  and  should  give  reasons  which  the  pupil  will  ac- 
cept without  the  assurance  of  some  rhetorical  authority. 

5.  These  corrections  should  often  be  read  to  the  class  as  a 
subject  for  class  discussion,  and  as  often  as  possible  the 
teacher  should  find  time  to  go  over  the  themes  with  the 
pupil  alone  taking  pains  to  reach  the  pupil’s  characteristic 
faults. 

6.  It  will  be  found  helpful  to  ask  for  written  outlines  of  sub- 
jects often  and  these  should  be  criticised  for  coherence, 
arrangement  and  proportion. 

7.  The  class  should  be  given  some  drill  in  criticising  compo- 
sitions themselves. 

IV.  RHETORIC  AND  LITERATURE. 

1,  The  study  of  literature  may  profitably  be  taken  up  in  con- 
nection with  the  work  in  composition,  the  classes  reciting 
on  alternate  days.  Themes  may  then  be  assigned  from  the 
work  in  the  literature  class,  but  these  themes  should  not 
demand  of  the  pupil  any  critical  thinking  beyond  what  has 
been  done  in  the  class.  In  the  work  in  composition  the 
pupil  must  devote  himself  largely  to  expressing  what  he 
already  has  in  mind. 

2,  Care  must  be  taken  not  to  repress  the  individuality  of  the 
pupil  by  making  him  feel  that  he  must  follow  some  author 
whom  he  is  studying  as  a model. 

3,  While  facility  in  expression  is  the  end  of  the  work,  the 
pupil’s  inventive  faculties  must  be  stimulated  or  he  will 
not  care  to  write  or  have  occasion  for  writing.  For  this 
work  subjects  drawn  from  the  work  in  literature  are  not 
advisable.  In  that  the  student  is  merely  to  put  in  shape 
things  that  he  has  learned.  For  more  original  work  other 
subjects  should  be  assigned. 

R.  C.  Hughes. 


ENGLISH  LITERATURE. 

I.  OBJECTS  IN  TEACHING  ENGLISH  LITERATUI^E. 

1.  That  the  student  may  not  be  ignorant  of  the  important 
names  and  important  achievements  in  English  letters. 

2.  That  he  may  come  to  a liking  for  good  books. 

3.  That  he  may  develop  so  critically  discerning  a taste  as  will 
give  him  a positive  dislike  for  the  crude  and  the  vulgar. 

4.  That  through  literature  he  may  come  to  a larger  under- 
standing of  life. 


40 


The  first  of  these  is  a matter  of  practical  business  importance, 
having  to  do  with  the  student’s  ability  to  meet  his  fellows  in  the 
world  of  affairs  on  a footing  of  intellectrial  equality;  the  others 
are  matters  of  culture  and  scholarship. 

II.  AMOUNT  AND  CHARACTER  OF  LITERATURE  TO  BE  STUDIED. 

1.  The  number  of  authors  and  works  read  should  be  enough 
to  give  the  student  a wide  range.  Too  exhaustive  study  of 
a few  works  will  deaden  the  interest  of  students  of  high 
school  age.  Moreover  the  study  of  literature  is  in  part  for 
the  purpose  of  broadening  the  pupil’s  knowledge  of  life, 
and  enough  should  be  read  to  accomplish  this. 

2.  A few  authors  should  be  studied  critically  for  the  purpose 
of  securing  object  3 above. 

3.  Nothing  should  be  read  so  superficially  that  the  student 
will  not  enter  measurably  into  the  spirit  of  the  writing. 

4.  Literature  of  the  narrative  sort,  whether  prose  or  verse, 
serves  best  to  stimulate  interest  in  the  subject  when  it  is 
first  taken  up. 

5.  In  the  study  of  Shakespeare,  dramas  should  be  selected  in 
which  the  pure  story  interest  is  strong,  and  in  which  the 
characters  are  distinctly  individual  and  easily  read.  “The 
Merchant  of  Venice’’  and  “Macbeth’’  are  especially  to  be 
recommended,  and  the  reading  of  them  in  the  high  school 
will  presumably  leave  enough  to  be  done  with  them  in  the 
later  study  of  them  in  the  college.  It  must  be  borne  in 
mind  that  high  school  students  are  not  prepared  either 
by  their  experience  of  life  or  by  their  knowledge  of  literary 
art  for  any  thoroughly  appreciative  study  of  Shakespeare, 
and  there  can  be  no  question  but  serious  study  of 
Shakespeare  by  students  not  mature  enough  to  get  his 
deeper  meanings  will  merely  result  in  dislike  for  him. 

6.  The  teacher  should  make  careful  study  of  the  class  and 
choose  productions  which  will  stimulate  the  interest  of  that 
particular  class  and  which  will  in  her  judgment  enlarge 
the  sympathies  of  the  individual  members  of  the  class. 

7.  The  teacher  should  as  far  as  possible  direct  the  reading 
done  by  pupils  in  their  homes. 

III.  THE  study  of  literary  HISTORY. 

1.  Real  knowledge  of  the  historical  development  of  English 
literature  can  come  only  through  direct  study  of  the  litera- 
ture itself,  but  this  is  a very  much  larger  thing  than  can  be 
accomplished  in  the  high  school. 

2.  It  need  hardly  be  said  that  Chaucer  is  not  an  author  to  be 
studied  below  junior  or  senior  classes  in  college,  but  the 


41 


high  school  student  who  will  not  go  to  college,  as  most 
high  school  students  do  not,  should  know  something  about 
Chaucer.  Obviously  in  this  case,  as  in  the  case  of  Spencer 
and  a host  of  others  whom  the  high  school  student  cannot 
read,  he  must  get  information  “second  hand”  from  some 
such  history  of  literature  as  Stopford  Brooke’s  “Primer  of 
English  Literature”  or  better  still,  from  Johnson’s  “His- 
tory of  English  and  American  Literature.” 

3.  In  the  teaching  of  literature  as  in  the  teaching  of  other 
subjects,  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  high  school  has 
a double  mission;  it  must  put  one  student  in  the  way  of 
the  scholarly’'  training  which  is  to  carry  him  further  in  col- 
lege, and  it  must  give  another  student  the  information  as 
information  which  will  enable  him  to  make  a good  showing 
in  the  world  of  affairs  without  a college  training. 
Pedagogically,  the  thought  most  important  is  that  the  student 
should  know  how  to  study  the  work  in  hand. 

1.  To  make  this  sure  the  teacher  should  prepare  definite  ques- 
tions suited  to  the  age  of  the  pupils  and  leading  them  to 
find  out  for  themselves  the  artistic  and  other  qualities  of 
the  story  or  essay  or  poem. 

2.  In  the  story  these  should  cover  matters  of  meaning,  phras- 
ing, mood  suggestions,  character  portrayal,  description 
and  management  of  plot  to  affect  the  reader’s  sympathies. 

3.  In  the  poem  they  should  deal  also  with  poetic  forms,  meter, 
figures,  alliteration,  rhyme  and  positive  crudities  as  well 
as  striking  felicities  of  phrasing. 

4.  Among  other  things  these  questions  should  lead  the  stud- 
ent to  the  right  placing  of  his  sympathies,  and  to  an  under- 
standing of  the  author’s  management  of  them. 

5.  Without  didacticism,  they  should  lead  the  pupil  to  an  appre- 
ciation of  the  fundamental  beauty  or  truth  which  gives  the 
work  in  hand  significance. 

Note:— A few  questions  are  here  given  as  illustrations. 

QUESTIONS  ON  “a  HIGHLAND  MYSTIC ” IN  THE  “BONNIE  BRIER  BUSH^” 

a.  What  do  you  understand  by  “The  Transformation  of 
Donald  Menzies?” 

b.  And  what  by  the  “open  vision?” 

c.  Would  you  call  the  description  of  Donald  in  the  third 
paragraph  good  or  not?  And  why? 

d.  What  changes  in  his  mood  in  this  paragraph?  And 
how  are  they  indicated? 

e.  In  the  next  paragraph  what  do  you  learn  about  Burn- 
brae  from  the  fact  that  he  always  opens  the  conversa- 
tion. 


42 


f.  What  distinction  in  character  do  you  note  between 
Burnbrae  and  Donald  as  you  read  through  the  chap- 
ter? 

g.  Indicate  in  the  third  paragraph  any  passages  that 
seem  to  you  especially  well  phrased  and  say  why. 

h.  For  what  purpose  do  you  fancy  this  chapter  was  writ- 
ten? 

QUESTIONS  ON  LANCELOT  AND  ELAINE. 

a.  What  is  the  meter  in  which  the  poem  is  written? 

b.  In  the  first  line  what  syllable  that  has  a secondary  ac- 
cent should  have  a primary  accent?  And  why? 

c.  What  cha  racteristic  in  Elaine  does  the  poet  imply  by  ‘ ‘ lily- 
maid?’’ 

d.  What  feeling  makes  her  wish  to  be  awakened  by  the 
gleam  of  mornings  earliest  ray? 

e.  Why  does  she  bar  her  door? 

f.  What  change  of  accent  in  line  24  to  give  added  em- 
phasis? 

g.  Is  the  figure  of  line  58  effective  or  not?  And  why? 

h.  Is  the  rhythmic  movement  of  1134-55  more  or  less  rapid 
than  11-27? 

i.  Is  this  story  1134-55-told  to  make  the  diamonds  fair  or 
evil  fated?  And  what  does  the  fact  that  there  were  two 
brothers  have  to  do  with  this? 

j.  What  characteristic  of  the  rivulet  applies  to  the  dia- 
monds? 1152. 

k.  And  do  you  think  the  figure  good  or  not?  Why? 

l.  What  alliteration  do  you  detect  in  line  89? 

m.  Do  you  understand  that  Guinevere  is  petulant  in  1197- 
1210  because  she  is  displeased  with  Lancelot  or  because 
she  is  troubled  in  her  own  heart? 

n.  What  may  you  know  about  Guinevere  from  the  “little 
scornful  laugh?” 

o.  Why  does  she  say  “he  cares  not  for  me?”  And  how  has 
that  affected  her  attitude  towards  him? 

p.  To  what  by  implication  does  she  liken  Arthur  in  line 
134?  And  is  the  implied  figure  good,  direct  and  vivid 
or  not? 

q.  In  this  talk  does  Guinevere  or  Lancelot  seem  the 
nobler? 

GENERAL  QUESTIONS  ON  THE  COMPLETE  IDYLL. 

a.  How  does  the  simplicity  of  Elaine’s  life  affect  our  feel- 
ing for  her  in  her  declaration  of  love  for  Lancelot? 


43 


b.  Does  Tennyson  inthis  make  choice  of  simple  words  or 
not? 

c.  What  do  you  conceive  is  the  effect  of  Elaine’s  death 
upon  Lancelot? 

d.  Do  you  find  that  there  are  many  or  few  pictures  brought 
up  in  the  mind  in  the  course  of  the  story? 

e.  Are  they  vivid  or  vague? 

f.  Are  they  produced  with  few  or  many  words? 

g.  Where  do  you  find  one  that  seems  especially  effective? 

h.  Would  you  say  that  the  diction  is  such  as  to  suggest 
much  or  little  to  the  imagination? 

i.  Does  the  verse  seem  to  have  color  and  feeling  or  is  it 

cold?  etc.  

LIST  OF  BOOKS  SUGGESTED. 

ENGLISH. 

L’ Allegro— Milton;  II.  Penseroso— Milton;  Ode  to  St.  Cecilia’s 
Day — Dryden;  Cotter’s  Saturday  Night— Burns;  The  Deserted  Vil- 
lage—Goldsmith;  Prisoner  of  Chillon— Byron;  Tintern  Abbey — 
Wordsworth;  Intimations  of  Immortality— Wordsworth;  The  Prin- 
cess— Tennyson;  Idylls  of  the  King— Tennyson;  Enoch  Arden — 
Tennyson;  Marmion— Scott;  The  Lady  of  the  Lake— Scott;  The 
Rime  of  the  Ancient  Mariner — Coleridge;  Ode  to  a Skylark — Shelley; 
The  Cloud— Shelley;  Iliad — Any  Good  Translation;  Odyssey— Any 
Good  Translation;  Macbeth— Shakespeare;  Merchant  of  Venice— 
Shakespeare;  Julius  Caesar— Shakespeare;  Essays,  Truth  Studies 
—Bacon;  Sir  Roger  de  Coverly  Papers— Addison;  Sesame  and 
Lilies— Ruskin;  Heroes  and  Hero  Worship— Carlyle;  Essay  on  Mil- 
ton— Macaulay;  Pilgrim’s  Progress— Bunyan;  Robinson  Crusoe— 
Defoe;  Tom  Brown’s  School  Days— Hughes;  Swiss  Family  Robin- 
son; Vicar  of  Wakefield— Goldsmith;  Oliver  Twist— Dickens;  Da- 
vid Copperfield— Dickens;  Old  Curiosity  Shop— Dickens;  Treasure 
Island— Stevenson;  Henry  Esmond— Thackeray;  Vanity  Fair — 
Thackeray;  Ivanhoe— Scott;  The*  Talisman— Scott;  Silas  Marner— 
George  Eliot;  Romola— George  Eliot;  King  of  the  Golden  River— 
Ruskin;  Crawford— Gaskell;  Cloister  and  the  Health— Reade; 
Water  Babies — Kingsley;  Balaustion’s  Adventure— Browning;  Alice 
in  Wonderland— Carroll;  The  Flight  of  a Tartar  Tribe— DeQuin- 
cey;  Last  of  the  Barons— Bulwer;  Don  Quixote— Cervantes;  Rass- 
elas— Johnson;  Jungle  Books— Kipling;  Life  of  Scott— Lockhart; 
Oliver  Goldsmith— Dobson. 

AMERICAN. 

Hiawatha— Longfellow;  Miles  Standish— Longfellow;  Evange- 
line—Longfellow;  Snowbound— Whittier;  Among  the  Hills— Whit- 


44 


tier;  The  Deacon’s  Masterpiece— Holmes;  The  Vision  of  Sir  Laun- 
fal— Lowell;  A Fable  for  Critics — Lowell;  Bigelow  Papers— Lowell; 
Commemoration  Papers— Lowell;  The  Haunted  Palace— Poe; 
Sketch  Book— Irving;  The  Alhambra— Irving;  Crayon  Papers— Irv- 
ing; Autocrat  of  the  Breakfast  Table— Holmes;  Uses  of  Great  Men, 
Friendship,  Character — Emerson;  Walden — Thoreau;  Wild  Apples 
— Thoreau;  Hunting  the  Deer— Warner;  Bunker  Hill  Monument 
Orations— Webster;  Adams  and  JefEerson— Webster;  Gettysburg 
Speech— Lincoln;  Autobiography— Franklin;  The  Spy— Cooper; 
The  Last  of  the  Mohicans— Cooper;  Twice  Told  Tales— Hawthorne; 
Mosses  From  an  Old  Manse — Hawthorne;  Two  Years  Before  the 
Mast— ^ana;  The  Man  Without  a Country— Hale;  Cudja’s  Cave— 
Trowbridge;  Uncle  Remus— Joel  Chandler  Harris;  Ben  Hur — Wal- 
lace; The  Boy’s  King  Arthur — Lanier;  The  Gold  Rug— Poe;  Rise  of 
Silas  Lapham— Howells;  Prue  and  I— Curtis;  Conspiracy  of  Pon- 
tiac— Parkman.  R.  C.  Hughes. 

Amy  Boggs. 

Lydia  Hinman. 


HISTORY, 

Few  studies  have  been  made  more  distasteful  to  younger  stud- 
ents through  ineffective  and  tactless  teaching  than  history;  yet  there 
is  scarcely  a subject  in  the  curriculum  of  secondary  schools,  that 
has  greater- potential  value.  Much,  it  is  true,  has  been  done  in  the 
last  half-dozen  years  to  carry  into  practice  the  suggestions  that 
were  made  in  theYeport  of  the  Madison  Conference,  and  many  teach- 
ers owe  increased  efficiency  to  the  stimulating  report,  which  the 
committee  of  seven  recently  submitted  to  the  American  Historical 
Association;  but  in  spite  of  these  helpful  reports,  many  of  the  most 
vital  principles  of  historical  work  are  still  so  habitually  neglected, 
or  overlooked,  that  they  need  frequent  restatement  and  emphasis. 

The  method  of  instruction  in  history  depends  very  largely  on 
the  estimate  placed  by  the  teacher  on  the  aim  and  value  of  histori- 
cal study.  Few  educators  will  feel  inclined  to  dispute  the  now  hap- 
pily widely -spread  belief  that  the  object  of  all  secondary  instruction 
is  primarily  mental  training,  but  they  are  less  generally  willing  to 
recognize  that  the  teacher  of  history  no  less  than  the  teacher  of 
mathematics  should  participate  in  this  work.  The  report  of  the 
Madison  Conference  took  high  ground  when  it  said:  “As  studies 

in  language  and  in  the  natural  sciences  are  best  adapted  to  cultivate 
the  habits  of  observation;  as  mathematics  are  the  traditional' train- 
ing of  the  reasoning  faculties;  so  history  and  its  allied  branches  are 
better  adapted  than  any  pother  studies  to  promote  the  invaluable 
mental  power  which  we  call  the  judgment.’’^  This  view  is  sus- 


1.  Report  of  Madison  Conference,  etc. 


45 


tained  by  the  report  of  the  committee  of  seven:  “While  it  is  per- 

fectly true  that  the  generalizing-  faculty  is  developed  late, and  that  the 
secondary  pupil  will  often  learn  unrelated  data  with  ease,  if  not  with 
avidity,  it  is  equally  true  that  history  in  the  hands  of  the  competent 
teacher  is  a great  instrument  for  developing  in  the  pupil  capacity 
for  seeing  underlying  reasons  and  for  comprehending  motives.  In 
the  ordinary  class-room  work,  both  in  science  and  in  mathematics, 
there  is  little  opportunity  for  discussion,  for  differences  of  opinion, 
for  balancing  of  probabilities;  and  yet  in  every  day  life  we  do  not 
deal  with  mathematical  demonstrations,  or  concern  ourselves  with 
scientific  observations:  we  reach  conclusions  by  a judicious  consid- 
eration of  circumstances  and  conditions,  some  of  them  in  apparent 
conflict  with  one  another,  and  none  of  them  susceptible  of  exact 
measurement  and  determination.’’^ 

The  value  of  the  study  of  history  as  a training  for  citizenship 
has  now  received  very  general  recognition;  and  it  almost  savours  of 
the  common-place  to  say  “that  the  most  essential  result  of  second- 
ary education  is  acquaintance  with  social  and  political  environment, 
some  appreciation  of  the  nature  of  the  state  and  society,  some  sense 
of  the  duties  and  responsibilities  of  citizenship,  some  capacity  in 
dealing  with  political  and  governmental  questions,  something  of  the 
broad  and  tolerant  spirit  which  is  bred  by  the  study  of  past  times 
and  conditions.’’ 

We  assent  cordially  to  the  plea  of  the  committee  of  seven  for  the 
development  of  historical-mindedness''  in  our  school  children.  “All 
our  institutions,  our  habits  of  thought  and  modes  of  action,  are  in- 
heritances from  preceding  ages;  no  conscious  advance,  no  worthy 
reform,  can  be  secured  without  both  a knowledge  of  the  present  and 
an  appreciation  of  how  forces  have  worked  in  the  social  and  politi- 
cal organizations  of  former  times.  If  this  be  so,  need  we  seriously 
argue  that  the  boys  and  girls  in  the  schoolroom  should  be  introduced 
to  the  past,  which  has  created  the  present, — that  historical  minded- 
ness should  be  in  some  slight  measure  bred  within  them,  and  that 
they  should  be  given  the  habit,  or  the  beginnings  of  a habit,  of  con- 
sidering what  has  been,  when  they  discuss  what  is  or  what  should 
be?’’2 

It  is  equally  important  that  our  teachers  should  not  forget  the 
ethical  import  of  historical  study.  If  a pupil  learns  nothing  else 
from  the  study  of  history,  he  should  learn  to  appreciate  the  scientific 
spirit:  “that  every  question  should  be  approached  without  prejudice; 
that  open-mindedness,  candor,  honesty  are  requisites  for  the  attain- 
ment of  scientific  knowledge.’’  Possibly  too  much  has  been  made 
of  the  value  of  history  so  far  as  it  is  said  to  teach  by  examples.  The 
exact  conditions  of  historical  events  rarely  repeat  themselves;  it  is 
true,  however,  that  what  we  speak  of  as  historical  forces  are  constant 


1.  Report  of  Committee  of  Seven. 

2.  Report  of  Committee  of  Seven,  etc. 


46 


and  that  the  recurrence  of  phenomena  may  be  looked  for  with 
confidence  where  similar  conditions  are  present.  Under  the  guidance 
of  a judicious  teacher,  errors  in  the  lives  of  nations  and  individuals 
in  history  may  have  their  salutary  lesson  for  even  the  youngest 
pupil. 

In  insisting  so  strenuously  upon  the  disciplinary  value  of  histori- 
cal study,  we  do  not  mean  to  underestimate  its  value  for  general 
culture.  It  is  indeed  well  worth  while  for  the  pupil  to  know  men 
and  events  ofithe  past,  if  only  to  broaden  his  mental  horizon  and 
deepen  his  human  sympathies,  but  this  content  of  historical  study 
we  believe  will  be  acquired  most  readily  and  helpfully,  if  the  teacher 
aims  constantly  to  secure  quality  rather  than  quantity  of  work.  It 
is  of  little  value  to  store  a boy’s  head  with  information,  if  the  pro- 
cess by  which  he  has  acquired  that  information  is  faulty.  Correct 
thinking  is  of  far  greater  importance  than  a mass  of  half  assimilated 
facts.  So  short  are  the  years  of  school  life  that  fall  to  the  lot  of  the 
average  child,  that  his  knowledge  must  necessarily  be  defective; 
his  school  days  are  but  the  beginning  of  a life-long  quest.  Does  not 
wisdom  suggest,  then,  that  he  should  be  taught,  first  of  all,  habits 
of  thought  that  shall  help  him  to  acquire  accurate  knowledge  in 
after  years? 

The  problem  that  confronts  the  teacher  at  the  very  threshold  of 
his  work  is  the  same  that  presents  itself  to  every  historian  and 
student  of  history;  what  facts,  what  kinds  of  facts,  are  to  be  selected 
for  study?  No  doubt  the  problem  finds  its  solution  very  often 
through  the  temperamental  bias  of  the  student.  To  one,  Mr.  Free- 
man’s dictum  that  ‘history  is  past  politics’  is  conclusive,  and  the 
governmental,  constitutional  phase  of  progress  became  his  theme. 
The  point  of  view  of  the  writer  of  a “Short  History  of  the  English 
People’’  appeals  to  another,  and  for  him  resolves  itself  largely  into 
a sociological  study  of  the  peoples  of  the  past.  The  question  is  too 
broad  for  a discussion  in  these  pages;  we  can  only  indicate  certain 
principles  that  should  govern  the  teacher  in  his  choice  of  historical 
material.  In  the  first  place,  the  age  and  maturity  of  the  pupil 
must  be  considered.  It  is  obviously  an  inversion  of  the  natural 
course  of  development  to  set  children  at  work  upon  themes  relating 
to  constitutional  history.  In  the  earlier  years  of  the  ^child’s  life, 
biography  and  narrative  history  are  most  attractive  and  stimulating 
and  it  is  only  when  the  pupil  approaches  maturity  that  he  is  fitted 
to  grapple  with  constitutional  questions.  In  short,  historical 
instruction  must  adapt  itself  to  the  mental  preparedness  of  the 
learners.  Secondly,  we  would  urge  the  need  of  discriminating 
between  different  periods  of  history  and  between  different  national- 
ities. There  are  epochs  when  the  doings  of  the  King’s  court  and 
of  the  King  himself  are  the  proper  object  of  study,  since  the  king  is 
the  state  and  the  nation  has  not  yet  come  into  being.  On  the  other 


47 


hand,  there  are  times  when  all  interest  centers  in  the  life  of  the 
people,  as  for  example,  when  the  democratic  movement  of  modern 
times  made  itself  felt.  The  teacher  who  tries  to  present  French 
history  in  the  same  way  as  Bng-lish  history  will  speedily  find  diffi- 
culties in  his  way.  The  constitutional  history  of  France  is  a meagre 
theme,  while  a history  of  England  without  reference  to  its  constitu- 
tional development,  would  be  like  “Hamlet”  with  Hamlet  left  out. 
The  whole  question  of  the  historical  material  which  should  be 
presented  is  one  that  is  best  left,  with  these  general  suggestions,  to 
the  good  sense  and  the  tact  of  the  individual  instructor. 

Notwithstanding  the  very  evident  danger  of  instruction  through 
a text-book  of  history,  we  believe  that  the  use  of  a school  history  of 
well-attested  merit  is  on  the  whole  desirable.  There  is  much,  doubt- 
less, to  be  said  in  favor  of  the  “topical  method,”  but  it  has  serious 
drawbacks.  “Without  the  use  of  a text  it  is  difficult  to  hold  the 
pupils  to  a definite  line  of  work;  there  is  danger  of  incoherence  and 
confusion.  While,  therefore,  we  strongly  advise  the  use  of  material 
outside  of  the  text,  we  feel  that  the  use  of  the  topical  method  alone 
will  in  the  great  majority  of  instances  result  in  the  pupils’  having 
unconnected  information.  They  will  lose  sight  of  the  main  current,, 
and  it  is  the  current  and  not  the  eddies  which  they  should  watch. 
Realizing  the  truth  of  this  criticism  many  teachers  have  sought 
to  secure  the  advantages  of  the  topical  method  without  the  accom- 
panying disadvantages,  by  assigning  topical  work  in  several 
text-books.  So  far  as  this  scheme  induces  the  pupil  to  compare  the 
statements  of  different  authors  and  to  form  his  own  opinion  of  the 
subject  under  discussion,  it  is  a commendable  advance  upon  the 
old-fashioned  use  of  a single  text-book,  but  it  does  not  altogether 
avoid  the  objections  urged  against  the  topical  method  alone.  In  the 
end,  the  work  of  bringing  unity  and  cohesion  into  the  body  of  facts 
culled  in  this  fashion  from  different  sources,  will  fall  upon  the 
teacher,  who  must  needs  be  both  efficient  and  well  informed,  if  he  is 
to  be  equal  to  the  task. 

If  a single  text-book  is  used,  it  should  be  chosen  with  the 
greatest  care.  The  old-style  school  history  with  its  pragmatic, 
dry-as-dust  chronicle  of  facts,  should  be  relegated  by  this  time  to 
the  limbo  of  pedagogic  antiquities.  A school  text-book  should  com- 
bine accuracy  with  genuine  literary  merit;  the  style  should  be  clear, 
and  entertaining;  a proper  sense  of  proportion  should  be  observed 
so  that  the  reader  may  grasp  the  relative  importance  of  the  facts 
presented.  There  is  no  more  common  failing  among  writers  of 
school  history  than  inability  to  understand  historical  perspective. 
The  anecdotal  history  sins  repeatedly  in  this  regard.  How  often 
will  the  pupil  glibly  recite  an  anecdote,  and  forget  the  important 
point  which  it  should  illustrate! 


1.  Report  of  Committee  of  Seven,  p.  91. 


48 


“A  text-book  oug-bt  to  be  something  more  than  the  mere  develop- 
ment of  a ‘story’,  it  ought  to  include  something  on  the  social  and 
economic  side,  as  well  as  on  the  political;  and  it  ought  to  [refer  to, 
and  facilitate,  outside  reading  and  the  preparation  of  topics.”  The 
familiar  illustrations  of  the  older  text-books  are  of  doubtful  value; 
far  more  desirable  are  reliable  physical  and  political  maps.  In 
emphasizing  the  probable  value  of  a single  text-book,  we  do  not  by 
any  means  intend  to  discourage  the  use  of  other  text-books  or  of 
outside  material.  The  text-book  should  be  supplemented  constantly 
by  topical  references  to  the  chief  secondary  authorities.  By  judicious 
selection  of  outside  reading  the  teacher  can  avail  himself  of  all  the 
advantages  that  the  topical  method  offers,  without  sacrificing  the 
continuity  of  the  class  work.  If  the  aim  of  all  topical  work  should 
be  to  lead  the  pupil  to  form  his  own  judgment  of  men  and  things 
through  comparison  of  several  authorities,  nothing  can  be  more 
stimulating  to  the  pupil’s  intelligence  than  to  have  him  read  author- 
ities whose  views  run  counter  to  familiar  traditions.  If  a pupil 
reads  Mr.  Fiske’s  version  of  the  earlier  events  in  the  American 
Revolution,  he  should  also  be  urged  to  read  Mr.  Lecky’s  account  of 
those  same  incidents.  Written  topics  prepared  in  this  way  are  of 
the  greatest  value  as  a training,  not  only  in  habits  of  criticism,  but 
in  forms  of  expression. 

Such  topical  work,  we  need  hardly  add,  must  be  suited  to  the 
age  and  intelligence  of  the  pupil.  To  expect  a boy  of  fourteen  to 
prepare  a scholarly  paper  on  a subject  that  is  still  mooted  by  leading 
authorities,  is  manifestly  absurd;  particularly  when  there  is  abund- 
ance of  suggestive  themes  that  will  lead  even  the  most  immature 
hoy  or  girl  to  an  appreciative  acquaintance  with  the  best  secondary 
histories.  Even  when  a pupil’s  immaturity  makes  comparative 
study  of  several  authorities  inadvisable,  he  may  be  taught  to  report 
in  his  own  words  the  account  that  he  has  found  in  a reliable  history ; 
in  no  case  should  the  teacher  suffer  a pupil  to  reproduce  an  author’s 
words  or  phraseology.  Whenever  practicable,  the  pupil  should 
append  a brief  bibliographical  note  to  his  paper  to  show  where  he 
found  the  material  that  he  used;  since  he  cannot  be  taughttoo  early 
the  need  of  stating  the  exact  authority  for  his  statements. 

Topical  work  of  this  sort  suggests  the  urgent  need  of  historical 
libraries  in  our  schools.  ‘‘The  library  should  be  the  center  and  soul 
of  all  study  in  history  and  literature;  no  vital  work  can  be  carried 
on  without  books  to  which  pupils  may  have  ready  and  constant 
access.  Without  these  opportunities,  historical  work  is  likely  to  be 
arid,  if  not  unprofitable;  there  cannot  be  collateral  reading,  or 
written  work  of  the  most  valuable  sort,  or  study  of  the  sources,  or 
knowledge  of  illustrative  material.  Even  a small  expenditure  of 
money  may  change  the  dull  routine  of  histopcal  study  into  a voyage 
of  pleasurable  discovery,  awakening  the  interest,  the  enthusiasm, 
and  the  whole  mental  power  of  the  pupils.  No  school  is  so  poor 


49 


that  something-  cannot  be  done  in  the  way  of  collecting  material.”^ 
Kvery  school  that  aims  to  teach  history  in  anything  more  than  a 
perfunctory  way,  should  have  a library  supplied  with  reliable  sec- 
ondaiy  histories,  and  some  collections  of  sources.  Historical  atlases, 
encyclopaedias,  and  general  historical  handbooks,  are  of  course  an 
indispensable  part  of  the  library  equipment.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that 
our  school-boards  will  soon  realize  that  books  are  as  necessary  apart 
of  the  school’s  equipment  as  are  chemicals  in  the  school  laboratory* 

How  far  the  use  of  sources  should  be  encouraged  in  secondary 
schools  is  a question  not  easily  answered.  So  far  as  the  so-called 
“source-method”  is  concerned,  we  incline  to  the  position  taken  by 
the  committee  of  seven.  ‘ ‘The  difficulty  with  this  system  is,  that 
while  it  suggests  the  basis  of  original  record  upon  which  all  history 
rests,  on  the  other  hand  it  expects  valuable  generalization  from 
insufficient  bases.  Within  the  covers  of  one  book  it  is  impossible  to 
bring  together  one-hundreth  part  of  the  material  which  any  careful 
historical  writer  would  examine  for  himself  before  coming  to  a 
conclusion;  and  it  is  not  to  be  expected  that  inexperienced  and 
immature  minds  can  form  correct  notions  without  some  systematic 
survey  of  the  field.  Indeed  the  attempts  to  teach  history  wholly 
from  the  sources  ignore  the  fact  that  the  actual  knowledge  of  the 
facts  of  history  in  the  minds  of  the  most  highly  trained  teachers  of 
history,  comes  largely  from  secondary  books;  it  is  only  in  limited 
fields,  where  a large  mass  of  material  can  be  examined  and  sifted, 
that  historians  and  teachers  can  safely  rely  for  their  information 
entirely  on  sources,  and  even  there  they  find  it  useful  to  refer  to  the 
secondary  work  of  other  writers,  for  new  points  of  view.”^  We 
agree,  too,  with  the  committee  of  seven  in  thinking  it  “unwise  for 
pupils  in  secondary  schools  to  attempt  original  investigations.  For 
such  advanced  work  they  have  neither  the  necessary  maturity  nor 
training.  It  is,  however,  both  possible  and  essential  that  pupils 
should  come  into  contact  with  a limited  body  of  materials  ,an  examin- 
ation of  which  may  show  the  nature  of  the  historical  process  and  at 
the  same  time  may  make  the  people  and  events  of  by-gone  times 
more  real.’’ 

Sources  should  not  be  put  indiscriminately  into  the  hands  of 
pupils;  here  again  the  age  and  general  intelligence  of  the  individual 
pupil  must  be  the  teacher’s  guide.  It  is  a questionable  use  of  time, 
for  example,  for  younger  pupils  to  try  to  read  and  understand  colo- 
nial charters;  the  points  that  are  essential  for  their  understanding 
of  colonial  institutions  can  be  much  more  readily  grasped  at  second 
hand.  But  how  full  of  interest  [for  even  the  youngest  child,  a 
chapter  from  Bradford’s  “History  of  Plymouth  Plantation;”  or 
Besse’s  “Sufferings  of  the  Quakers”  may  become!  Older  students 
may  very  well  read  some  of  the  more  weighty  documents  and  learn 


1.  Report  of  Committee  of  Seven,  p.  97. 

2.  Report  of  Committee  of  Seven,  p.  101. 


50 


to  discrimate  between  trustworthy  and  untrustworth5r  authorities ; 
many  of  the  essential  principles  of  historical  criticism  can  be  made 
clear  by  an  inquiry  into  the  probable  veracity  of  the  author  under 
discussion.  “Besides  the  sources  which  have  come. down  to  us  in 
written  form  and  are  reproduced  upon  the  printed  pag-e,  there  is 
another  important  class  of  historical  materials  which  is  of  great 
assistance  in  giving  reality  to  the  past, —namely,  actual,  concrete 
remains,  such  as  exist  in  the  form  of  old  buildings,  monuments,  and 
the  contents  of  museums.  Many  schools  have  direct  access  to 
interesting  survivals  of  this  sort,  while  the  various  processes  of 
pictorial  reproduction  have  placed  abundant  stores  of  such  material 
within  reach  of  every  teacher.”  “It  is  easy  to  make  too  much  of 
illustrations  and  thus  reduce  history  to  a series  of  dissolving  views; 
but  many  excellent  teachers  have  found  the  judicious  use  of  pictures 
helpful  in  the  extreme,  not  merely  in  arousing  interest  in  the 
picturesque  aspect  of  the  subject,  but  in  cultivating  the  historical 
imagination  and  in  giving  definiteness  and  vividness  to  the  pupil’s 
general  ideas  of  the  past.” ^ 

Few  teachers  in  secondary  schools  will  advocate  instruction  by 
means  of  formal  lectures;  the  recitation  is  likely  to  maintain  its 
place  for  reasons  that  are  obvious  to  all  practical  teachers.  Never- 
theless, reform  in  class  room  methods  is  sorely  needed,  where  the 
old  style  of  perfunctory  question  and  parrot-like  answer  still  persists. 
Of  all  methods  of  instruction  such  recitations  are  surely  the  most 
pernicious,  stultifying  alike  to  teacher  and  pupil.  The  class  room 
should  be  something  more  than  a place  of  examination;  the  teacher 
more  than  a recording  clerk.  The  class  exercise  is  the  teacher’s 
opportunity  for  expanding  and  commenting  upon  the  themes  sug- 
gested by  the  text-book,  and  his  every  effort  should  be  to  rouse  the 
interest  of  his  pupils  in  the  essential  features  of  the  lesson  and  to 
lead  them  to  discover  for  themselves  the  underlying  causes  for  the 
events  that  they  have  studied. 

Almost  any  devices  that  bring  life  and  interest  into  the  class 
room  exercises  are  commendable.  Impromptu  debates,  verbal 
reports  on  assigned  topics,  and  other  expedients,  will  readily  occur 
to  the  teacher,  who  is  earnestly  intent  upon  escaping  from  the 
thraldom  of  the  “regular  recitation.”  Experienced  teachers  will 
testify  to  the  stimulating  effect  of  an  analysis  of  the  day’s  lesson 
worked  out  on  the  black-board  by  teacher  and  pupils.  An  excellent 
way  of  riveting  the  attention  of  pupils  upon  the  class  work,  is  that 
of  requiring  all  to  record  in  note  ; books  the  lline  of  discussion  and 
any  new  material  that  the  teacher  may  have  to  offer.  Frequent 
written  exercises  may  well  supplement  the  class  exercises,  if  only 
to  enable  the  teacher  to  know  the  indolent  spirits  who  are  prone  to 


1.  Report  of  Committee  of  Seven,  pp.  108-109. 


51 


let  their  more  active  and  ambitious  comrades  do  their  thinking-  for 
them. 

It  is  significant  of  the  current  conceptions  of  history  that  school 
children  so  frequently  complain  that  they  cannot  remember  dates, 
as  though  dates  were  the  chief  thing  to  be  acquired  in  historical 
W'Ork.  Much  might  be  done  to  root  out  this  prevalent  misconcep- 
tion of  history,  if  teachers  themselves  would  bear  in  mind  that 
disconnected  events  and  isolated  dates  are  not  history,  but  only  the 
raw  material  out  of  which  the  historian  constructs  his  narrative; 
teachers  have  too  often  mistaken  chronicles  for  histories.  The  study 
of  history  like  the  writing  of  history,  involves  infinitely  more  intel- 
lectual labor  than  the  simple  arraying  of  fact  upon  fact,  in  chrono- 
logical order.  Between  the  facts  and  behind  the  facts  the  student  must 
search  for  the  .casual  relation  which  gives  continuity  and  meaning 
to  human  events.  Not  all  dates,  not  all  facts,  are  of  equal  importance, 
and  it  is  no  small"  part  of  the  historian’s  task  to  distinguish  the 
important  from  the  unimportant,  the  essential  from  the  accidental. 
While  it  is  clear,  then,  that  not  all  dates  or  facts  are  worth 
remembering,  there  are  certain  ones  that  should  be  fixed  in  the 
memory,  otherwise  our  knowledge  loses  its  coherence,  but  these  are 
so  comparatively  few  and  connected  by  so  many  lines  of  association, 
that  their  recall  becomes  a matter  of  little  effort. 

Many  a lesson  in  history  might  be  brought  home  with  greater 
force  to  pupils,  if  the  teacher  were  more  keenly  alive  to  the  depend- 
ence of  history  upon  geography.  No  school  should  be  without  a sup- 
ply of  accurate  wall  maps  indicating  physical  features  as  well  as 
political  divisions.  “The  pupils  should  not  lose  sight  of  the  physi- 
cal causes  that  have  acted  in  history  any  more  than  they  should 
ignore  the  human  causes ; and  they  must  remember  that,  although 
history  deals  with  the  succession  of  events,  there  is  always  a place 
relation  as  well  as  a time  relation.  As  new  meaning  is  given  to 
geography  when  physical  conditions  are  seen  in  relation  with  human 
life,  so  reality  is  added  to  historical  occurrences  and  new  interest  is 
awakened  in  historical  facts  by  the  study  of  the  theatre  within  which 
men  acted  and  notable  events  took  place. The  teacher  must 
be  on  on  his  guard  in  using  political  maps,  since  they  can  at  best 
indicate  boundaries  only  as  they  exist  at  a given  point  of  time,  and 
may  often  lead  the  pupil  to  forget  the  fluctuations  of  national  boun- 
daries. 

. Space  will  not  permit  more  than  a brief  reference  to  the  courses 
that  should  find  a place  in  the  curriculum  of  secondary  schools;  it 
will  suffice,  perhaps,  to  quote  from  the  report  of  the  Committee  of 
Seven.  These  men  have  devoted  so  much  time  and  labor  to  the  subject, 
that  they  are  entitled  to  speak  with  authority.  “As  a thorough  and 
systematic  course  of  study,  we  recommend  four  years  of  work, 


1.  Report  of  the  Committee  of  Seven,  p.  96. 


52 


beginning-  with  ancient  history  and  ending  with  American  history. 
For  these  four  years  we  propose  the  division  of  the  general  field 
into  four  blocks  or  periods,  and  recommend  that  they  be  studied  in 
the  order  in  which  they  are  here  set  down,  which  in  large  measure 
accords  with  the  natural  order  of  events,  and  shows  the  sequence  of 
historical  facts:  — 

(1) .  Ancient  History,  with  special  reference  to  Greek  and  Ro- 
man history,  but  including  also  a short  introductory  study  of  the  more 
ancient  nations.  This  period  should  also  embrace  the  early  Middle 
Ages,  and  should  close  with  the  establishment  of  the  Holy  Roman 
Empire  (800)  or  with  the  death  of  Charlemagne  (814),  or  with  the 
treaty  of  Verdun  (843). 

(2)  Mediaeval  and  Modern  European  History,  from  the  close 
of  the  first  period  to  the  present  time. 

(3)  English  History. 

(4)  American  History  and  Civil  Government.”^ 

Such  an  extended  course  of  study  as  this,  is  thoroughly  in  ac- 
cord with  the  view  that  history  should  be  given  greater  consideration 
because  of  its  value  as  a disciplinary  study,  but  there  are  probably 
few  schools  where  this  program  can  be  adopted  an  once.  For  such 
schools  the  Committee  of  Seven  has  this  recommendation:  “If  only 

three  years  can  be  devoted  to  historical  work,  three  of  the  periods 
outlined  above  may  be  chosen,  and  one  omitted;  such  omission 
seems  to  us  to  be  better  than  any  condensation  of  the  whole.  But  if 
any  teacher  desires  to  compress  two  of  [the  periods  into  a single 
year’s  work,  one  of  the  following  plans  may  be  adopted.  (1)  Com- 
bine English  and  American  history,  in  such  a manner  that  the  more 
important  principles  wrought  out  in  English  history,  and  the  main 
facts  of  English  expansion,  will  be  tanght  in  connection  with  Amer- 
ican colonial  and  later  political  history.  (2)  Treat  English  history  in 
such  a way  as  to  include  the  most  important  elements  of  mediaeval 
and  modern  European  history.”^ 

Allen  Johnson. 


LATIN. 

The  aims  of  a secondary  school  course  in  Latin  extending  over 
four  years  are  quite  generally  understood  and  pursued.  Supposing, 
as  this  report  does,  that  five  recitation  periods  a week  are  to  be  de- 
voted to  the  study  during  at  least  three  of  the  four  years,  there 
should  be  no  insuperable  difficulties  in  the  way  of  completing  the 
minimum  amount  recommended  in  the  report  of  the  committee  on 
COLLEGE  ENTRANCE  REQUIREMENTS  presented  to  the  National  Edu- 
cational Association  at  its  meeting  in  July,  1899.  Since  this  Report 


1.  Report  of  the  Committee  of  Seven,  pp.  34,  35. 

2.  Ibid,  p.  43. 


53 


must  inevitably  set  the  standard  of  the  four-year  I,atin  course  for 
years  to  come,  it  appears  desirable  to  reproduce  it  here  for  the  bene* 
fit  of  teachers  and  school  authorities  generally. 

FIRST  YEAR. 

Latin  lessons,  accompanied  from  an  early  stage  by  the  reading 
of  very  simple  selections.  Kasy  reading:  twenty  to  thirty  pages  of 
consecutive  text.  In  all  written  exercises  the  long  vowels  should  be 
marked,  and  in  all  oral  exercises  pains  should  be  taken  to  make  the 
pronunciation  conform  to  the  quantities. 

The  student  should  be  trained  from  the  beginning  to  grasp  the 
meaning  of  the  Latin  before  translating,  and  then  to  render  into 
idiomatic  English  and  should  be  taught  to  read  the  Latin  aloud 
with  intelligent  expression. 

SECOND  YEAR. 

Selections  from  Caesar’s  galeic  war  equivalent  in  amount  to 
four  or  five  books;  selections  from  other  prose  writers,  such  as 
Nepos,  may  be  taken  as  a substitute  for  an  amount  up  to,  but  not 
exceeding,  two  books. 

The  equivalent  of  at  least  one  period  a week  in  prose  composition 
based  on  Caesar. 

Reading  aloud  and  translating,  together  with  training  in  correct 
methods  of  apprehending  the  author’s  meaning,  both  prepared  and 
unprepared  passages  being  used  as  material.  The  memorizing  of 
selected  passages. 

THIRD  AND  FOURTH  YEARS. 

Sallust’s  Cataline.  Cicero:  six  to  nine  orations  (including  the 
Manilian  Law).  Ovid,  500  to  1500  verses.  Virgil’s  J3neid:  six  to 
nine  books.  The  equivalent  of  at  least  one  period  a week  in  prose 
composition  based  on  Cicero.  The  reading  of  Latin  aloud.  The 
memorizing  of  selected  passages. 

The  adoption  of  this  course  is  not  only  demanded  by  considera* 
tions  of  self-respect,  but  it  is  also  far  from  being  impracticable. 
Preparatory  to  drafting  the  statement  concerning  Latin  in  this  publi- 
cation, letters  of  inquiry  were  sent  to  twelve  of  the  principal  high 
schools  of  Iowa,  and  from  eight  reports  were  received  in  reply. 
Although  the  information  obtained  in  this  manner  was  not  in  all 
cases  as  detailed  as  was  desired,  it  appears  that  the  above-mentioned 
requirements  for  the  first  and  second  years  are  substantially  met  in 
all  of  the  schools.  In  the  third  and  fourth  years  some  deficiencies 
occur,  due  chiefly  to  the  circumstance  that  four  instead  of  five 
periods  a week  are  devoted  to  the  study.  Six  orations  of  Cicero  and 
nine  books  of  Virgil’s  ^neid  are  almost  universally  read.  Here  and 
there  a sufficient  amount  of  Ovid  is  taught.  In  view  of 
the  fact  that  the  Metamorphoses  presents  so  much  less  difficulty  to 


54 


the  beg-inner  in  reading  hexameter  verse  than  the  ^neid,  it  would 
seem  advisable,  even  from  considerations  of  time  economy,  to  give 
a few  weeks  to  this  author.  Add  to  this  that  the  enhancement  of 
interest  accruing  from  the  reading  of  a new  author  amply  compen- 
sates for  a certain  loss  of  time,  and  we  have  said  sufficient  to  recom- 
mend the  introduction  of  a modicum  of  Ovid.  Quite  frequently  an 
additional  oration  or]  some  letters  of  Cicero  are  read  in  lieu  of 
Sallust’s  Cataline.  Some  of  the  considerations  favorable  to  Ovid 
apply  with  equal  force  to  Sallust.  And  in  addition,  this  historical 
monograph  possesses  to  an  unusual  degree  intrinsic  interest  for  the 
scholar,  especially  when  read  [preparatory  to,  or  in  conjunction 
with,  the  Catalinarian  orations  of  Cicero.  A few  high  schools  have 
successfully  employed  selections  from  it  as  material  for  sight 
reading. 

There  is  one  matter  deserving  of  more  than  passing  mention. 
It  is  the  subject  of  Latin  prose  writing,  almost  universally  neg- 
lected in  Iowa.  Easy  exercises  in  the  writing  of  Latin  should  ac- 
company the  other  phases  of  the  instruction  from  the  first,  because 
they  give  an  intimate  knowledge  of  the  essential  forms  and  a 
readiness  in  the  use  hardly  to  be  attained  in  any  other  way.  In 
many  high  schools  the  insufficient  number  of  recitation  periods 
has  led  to  the  omission  of  such  exercises  very  much  to  the  detri- 
ment of  the  instruction  in  aU;of  its  aspects.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that, 
when  five  periods  a week  are  granted,  teachers  may  not  yield  to 
the  temptation  to  spend  the  added  hours  entirely  in  increasing  the 
amount  of  Latin  to  be  read,  but  may  avail  themselves  of  the  bet- 
ter opportunities  for  reinforcing  the  fundamentals  by  devoting 
much  of  the  gain  to  this  important  work.  Prose  composition 
based  on  Cicero  is  quite  too  generally  omitted  while  the  class  is 
busied  with  the  reading  of  Virgil.  In  many  schools,  however,  an 
ample  equivalent,  though  hardly  of  a kind  with  it,  is  provided  in 
the  weekly  period  devoted  to  the  study  of  classical  mythology. 

Owing  to  its  fundamental  character,  the  first  year  Latin  de- 
serves especial  mention.  In  pursuing  the  lessons,  accuracy  in  the 
recognition  of  inflectional  forms  is  hardly  more  important  than 
correct  pronunciation  in  conformity  with  the  quantities,  which 
can  be  attained  only  by  constant  practice  in  reading  aloud  under 
the  punctilious  instruction  of  the  teacher.  It  is  the  experience  of 
schoolmen  generally  that  the  slightest  neglect  of  this  exercise 
even  for  a short  time  at  this  early  stage,  works  irreparable  harm. 
Heading  aloud  should  not,  however,  be  discontinued  at  the  end  of 
the  first  year,  but  should  be  made  auxiliary,  from  the  first  and 
always,  to  another  phase  of  Latin  instruction,  which  is  also  of 
great  importance, — grasping  the  meaning  of  the  text  before  trans- 
lation, itself  indispensable  if  the  student  is  to  render  it  into  idio- 
matic English.  If  reading  aloud  be  continually  practiced  in  the 
-manner  described,  ‘the  intelligent  expression,’ which  every  teacher 


55 


desires  above  all  to  catch,  may  not  be  the  unattainable  ideal  it 
is  sometimes  thought  to  be. 

Quite  as  indispensable  as  the  oral  practice  is  the  marking  of 
all  long  vowels  in  the  written  exercises.  In  fact,  the  two  neces- 
sarily run  parallel,  and  unless  the  latter  is  practiced  consistently 
the  pronunciation  will  deteriorate.  It  will  be  found  helpful  in  this 
respect  if  the  teacher  will  occasionally  read  aloud  some  simple 
connected  passage  and  have  the  scholar  translate  from  hearing. 
But  perhaps  there  is  no  exercise  that  promises  better  results  in 
all  directions  than  the  memorizing  of  selected  sentences  and,  in 
due  course,  of  connected  passages.  Poetical  quotations  are  es- 
pecially adapted  for  this  purpose  and  facilitate  fixing  in  memory 
the  quantities.  A live  teacher  by  such  devices  can  combine  the 
learning  of  paradigms  with  a concrete  mastery  of  the  language, 
and  such  is,  of  course,  the  ideal  we  set  ourselves  in  the  begin- 
nings of  Latin. 

If,  as  is  here  assumed,  five  periods  a week  throughout  three 
years  and  four  periods  in  the  fourth  year  are  given  to  Latin  in 
the  high  school,  most  of  the  deficiencies  here  touched  upon  may 
be  readily  supplied.  In  view  of  the  rapid  progress  in  the  co-ordi- 
nation of  courses  of  study  the  country  over,  there  ought  to  be  no 
doubt  or  hesitation  about  the  standard.  The  four-year  course 
recommended  by  the  NationaP  Educational  Association  should  be 
adopted  by  our  high  schools  at  once,  where  it  is  not  already  in 
operation.  Yet  there  should  be  nothing  farther  from  our  thoughts 
than  the  reduction  of  the  entire  Latin  curriculum  to  a system  of 
hard  and  fast  requirements.  To  insure  the  maintenance  of  the 
teacher’s  interest  in  his  work,  upon  which  in  the  last  resort  all 
his  success  depends,  some  considerable  scope  must  be  reserved 
to  his  initiative,  and  due  allowance  must  always  be  made  for 
special  endowments  and  individual  methods. 

Good  courses,  however,  do  not  guarantee  good  teaching.  At 
this  point  all  prescriptions  fail.  Unless  teachers  of  Latin  in  the 
secondary  schools  are  filled  with  a lofty  ambition  constantly  to 
improve  their  methods  of  presentation  and  the  vital  sympathy 
they  possess  for  the  subject-matter  of  their  instructions,  Latin 
will  be  in  fact,  as  it  is  in  name,  a dead  language.  The  increased 
interest  in  the  study,  evinced  in  the  growing  numbers  of  those 
who  take  it  in  our  schools,  indicates  that  the  teacher  is  growing 
with  his  opportunity.  May  this  prove  to  be  the  fact. 

William  A.  Heidel. 


LOGICAL  VALUE  OF  LATIN. 

It  is  not  enough  to  say  that  the  ultimate  aim  of  the  study  of 
Latin  is  to  appropriate  the  language,  to  come  into  vital  touch 


56 


with  the  thoughts  and  feelings  of  the  Roman  world  through  the 
medium  of  the  literature.  The  great  majority  of  those  pursuing 
the  study  for  a limited  time  never  reach  this  ideal.  Its  value  for 
those  who  pursue  it  for  a few  years  only  is  very  great  in  that  it 
affords  an  effective  instrument  in  the  training  of  the  logical  pow- 
ers. All  the  logical  processes  are  brought  into  constant  play. 
Perception,  judgment,  ratiocination  are  exercised.  “The  Rule,“ 
is  the  major  premise  and  in  the  verifying  of  it  all  the  inductive 
processes  are  employed.  The  page  of  Latin  literature  thus  affords 
a field  for  classification,  such  as  meadow  and  wood  afford  the  bot- 
anist. Between  the  microscopic  pettiness  of  the  old  parsing  sys- 
tem and  the  reaching  after  things  only  in  their  largeness  there  is 
a golden  mean  most  serviceable  to  the  average  boy  and  girl  in  our 
public  schools.  F.  C.  Eastman. 


MATHEMATICS. 

Of  the  various  branches  of  study  pursued  in  the  high  school 
none  is  of  greater  importance  than  mathematics,  and  this  is 
equally  true  whether  the  study  be  considered  with  reference  to  its 
practical  or  to  its  disciplinary  value. 

Fortunately,  expensive  material  equipment  is  in  no  way  essen- 
tial to  the  successful  teaching  of  mathematics;  in  fact,  the  com- 
petent teacher  may  well  dispense  with  everything  but  his  supply 
of  chalk  and  ample  blackboard  room.  While  the  writers  have  had 
much  better  opportunities  to  observe  the  results  of  the  mathemat- 
ical training  afforded  by  our  high  schools  than  the  means  em- 
ployed in  obtaining  these  results,  they  have  never  been  inclined 
to  believe  that  the  inadequacy  of  such  training,  where  it  is  inade- 
quate, is  in  the  slightest  degree  due  to  insufficient  material  equip- 
ment. While  mathematical  models  may  serve  a useful  purpose  in 
giving  to  children  some  fundamental  notions  regarding  geometri- 
cal figures,  they  need  not  be  taken  to  the  class  room  where  formal 
algebra  and  geometry  are  taught. 

The  one  thing  needful  above  all  else,  to  secure  good  high 
school  work  in  mathematics,  is  an  enthusiastic  teacher  full  of  his 
subject,  and  having  a capacity  for  a great  deal  more  of  it  than  he 
is  required  to  teach.  Mathematics  cannot  be  successfully  taught 
by  the  teacher  lacking  special  fitness  and  training  for  such  work 
any  more  than  can  Latin  or  physics,  German  or  botany.  To  ex- 
pect one  having  no  knowledge  of  the  subject  beyond  the  mere  ele- 
ments of  algebra  and  geometry  to  successfully  teach  these  branches 
is  an  absurdity  that  high  school  principals  would  not  permit  them- 
selves to  tolerate  in  the  supervision  of  their  work  in  language  or 
in  science.  In  general,  no  teacher  can  be  considered  as  properly 
qualified  to  conduct  students  through  the  mathematics  required 


57 


for  admission  to  college  who  has  not  familiarized  himself  with  the 
intimate  relationship  between  algebra  and  geometry  by  the  study 
of  analytic  geometry,  and  with  the  doctrine  of  limits  as  applied  in 
the  differential  and  integral  calculus.  In  other  words,  the  equiva- 
lent of  at  least  the  first  two  years  of  collegiate  mathematics 
should  be  required  of  the  teacher  having  charge  of  this  branch  in 
the  high  school. 

Apropos  it  may  be  stated  that  many  of  the  students  entering 
our  colleges  with  the  best  preparation  in  mathematics  come  from 
our  smaller  high  schools,— from  high  schools  knowing  no  such 
adjunct  as  a physical  laboratory,  a museum,  or  perhaps  even  a 
respectable  library.  The  reason  for  this  is  apparent  and  its  state- 
ment may  be  suggestive.  In  such  schools  the  temptation  to  de- 
part from  a few  fundamental  lines  of  work  is  much  less  than  in 
the  better  equipped  high  school  having  a larger  corps  of  teachers. 
The  small  high  school  affords  just  the  opportunity  for  that  con- 
centration of  the  pupiPs  energies  upon  English,  mathematics,  and 
one  of  the  foreign  languages,  that  lays  the  best  possible  founda- 
tion for  a solid  course  of  study  in  college.  It  should  be  added,  in 
justice,  that  many  of  the  most  poorly  prepared  students  entering 
college  come  from  the  small  schools  in  which,  without  proper 
equipment  and  teaching  force,  the  attempt  is  made  to  cover  a 
range  that  may  with  greater  propriety  be  undertaken  by  the  well 
equipped  high  school  of  the  large  town  or  the  city. 

Of  all  the  tangible  causes  of  poor  preparation  for  college,  as 
regards  mathematics,  the  most  common  is  that  sufficient  time  has 
not  been  devoted  to  their  study.  Even  when  the  rudiments  of 
algebra  are  acquired  in  the  grammar  grades,  not  less  than  a year 
and  a half  should  be  spent  upon  the  subject  in  the  high  school. 
Another  year  and  a half  must  be  given  to  plane  and  solid  geome- 
try. It  should  be  noted  that  the  above  does  not  include  the  time 
which  should  be  given  to  reviews  in  the  fourth  year  of  the  course. 

It  must  be  assumed  that  the  student  entering  the  high  school 
has  mastered  the  topics  ordinarily  studied  in  arithmetic.  The  rather 
common  practice  of  introducing  the  notation  and  something  of  the 
methods  of  algebra  in  connection  with  the  more  advanced  grammar 
school  work  in  arithmetic  is  certainly  to  be  commended.  Not  only 
may  many  of  the  topics  there  studied  be  more  satisfactorily 
explained  by  the  use  of  simple  algebraic  notation,  but  in  these 
simple  concrete  applications  of  algebra  the  way  is  made  easier  for 
the  comprehension  of  the  general  reasoning  characteristic  of  the 
science. 

It  is  also  deemed  important  that,  either  in  the  grammar  school 
or  at  the  beginning  of  the  high  school  course,  the  pupil  be  introduced 
to  the  study  of  geometry  by  the  heuristic  method.  The  teacher 
undertaking  this  work  with  a class  may  find  many  helpful  sugges- 


58 


tions  in  William  George  Spencer’s  Inventional  Geometry,  (D. 
Appleton  & Co.,  1877)  and  in  other  more  recent  works  of  similar 
character.*  “Of  course,”  as  Herbert  Spencer  remarks  in  reference 
to  his  father’s  work,  “the  use  of  the  method  implies  capacity  in 
the  teacher  and  real  interest  in  the  welfare  of  his  pupils.”  The 
pupils  should  be  provided  with  simple  drawing  instruments,  which 
they  may  easily  be  taught  to  use.  Many  valuable  geometrical 
concepts  may  be  developed;  and  the  practical  value  of  the  work,  if 
conducted  by  a skillful  teacher,  can  scarcely  be  overestimated.  The 
spirit  in  which  the  work  should  be  conducted  should  be  that  of  the 
laboratory,  where  the  student  is  induced  to  discover  facts  and 
relations  for  himself.  Lines  may  be  bisected,  perpendiculars 
erected,  various  geometrical  figures  drawn,  plans  and  elevations  of 
solids  of  various  forms  constructed,  equal  angles  laid  off,  even  the 
value  of  Ti"  determined  with  as  much  precision  as  was  attained  by 
the  priests  of  Egypt. 

The  introduction  of  this  so-called  synthetic  geometry  at  this 
early  stage  will  make  it  impossible  to  impress  upon  the  mind  of  the 
pupil,  as  he  pursues  his  mathematical  studies,  the  essential  unity 
of  algebra  and  geometry.  There  can  be  no  greater  mistake  than  to 
assume  that  algebra  should  be  finished  before  geometry  is  under- 
taken. The  whole  history  of  mathematics  is  a protest  against  such 
a course.  It  would  be  better,  setting  aside  all  questions  as  to 
text-books,  to  reverse  this  order  and  require  the  pupil  to  finish  his 
Euclid  before  being  introduced  to  formal  algebra. 

Upon  resuming  the  study  of  algebra  in  the  high  school  increased 
attention  should  be  given  to  the  logical  aspect  of  the  various 
processes  discussed.  The  first  great  difficulty  which  the  pupil  meets 
in  the  study  of  algebra  is  in  comprehending  the  significance  of  the 
minus  sign.  Whatever  method  may  be  employed  in  dealing  with 
this  difficulty  it  is  almost  certain  that,  in  going  over  the  subject  for 
the  first  time  in  the  grammar  school,  the  only  result  will  be  that  the 
pupil  learns  to  follow  somewhat  blindly  the  empirical  rules  governing 
the  use  of  the  sign.  It  is  hardly  to  be  expected  that  the  matter  will 
be  fully  comprehended  until  he  is  able  to  rise  to  the  conception  of  a 
number  as  a directed  line;  and  of  the  minus  sign  as  an  operator 
which,  applied  to  a number,  reverses  its  direction  or  sense. 
However,  this  can  hardly  be  expected  of  pupils  in  the  grammar 
grades,  totally  unfamiliar  with  the  notion  that  algebraic  expressions 
are  capable  of  geometrical  interpretation. 

Great  care  should  be  taken  at  the  outset  to  prevent,  on  the 
pupil’s  part,  erroneous  notions  as  to  the  value  and  meaning  of  nega- 
tive quantities.  It  will  be  well  worth  while  to  explain  that  the  zeros 
from  which  we  measure  magnitudes  are  arbitrarily  assumed.  Thus: 

^Among  such  works  may  be  mentioned:  Campbell’s  Observational  Geometry,  Harper 
& Brothers.  1899;  Hopkin’s  Manual  of  Plane  Geometry,  D.  C.  Heath  & Co.,  1891;  Keigwin’s 
Geometry,  Henry  Holt  & Co.,  1898;  Van  Velzer  and  Shutt’s  Plane  and  Sold  Geometry 
(Tracy  Gibbs  & Co.,  Madison,  Wis.),  is  the  most  complete  work  on  the  “inventional”  plan 
yet  examined  by  the  writer. 


59 


the  zero  of  the  thermometer  is  not  an  absolute  zero,  the  zero  of 
chronology  is  not  the  beginning  of  time,  that  from  which  altitudes 
are  estimated  is  not  the  lowest  level  conceivable,  etc.  It  will  then 
be  easy  for  the  novice  to  understand  that  a unit  measured  in  the 
negative  direction  from  an  arbitrary  zero  has  the  same  absolute 
value  as  one  measured  in  the  positive  direction.  Numberless  specific 
examples  may  be  given  to  illustrate  this  point.  Thus:  a ship  in 
latitude— 1°  is  exactly  as  far  from  the  equator, whose  latitude  is  zero, 
as  another  in  latitude  -|-  1*^;  Dead  Sea,  at  an  altitude  of  — 1400  ft.  is 
just  as  far  from  sea-level,  whose  altitude  is  zero,  as  Spirit  Lake, 
Iowa,  whose  altitude  is  -|-1400  ft.,  etc.  It  is  not  only  needless,  but 
it  is  misleading  to  resort  to  such  statements  as  “A  minus  quantity 
is  a quantity  less  than  nothing,”  or  ‘‘Minus  6 is  6 less  than  zero.” 

The  above  clearly  understood  it  may  be  pointed  out  that  we 
have  simply  assumed  that  the  minus  sign  reverses  the  direction  or 
“sense”  of  the  quantity  before  which  it  is  written.  Now,  this  is  a 
purely  arbitrary  interpretation  of  the  significance  of  the  sign  in 
question;  and  here  seems  to  be  the  great  stumbling  block  of  both 
pupil  and  teacher,— the  difficulty  of  seeing  why  this  is  so.  The  fact 
is  that  it  is  so  simply  because  mathematicians  have  chosen  to  so 
interpret  the  minus  sign;  they  have  agreed  to  regard—  1 as  an 
operator  which,  applied  to  any  quantity  whatever  reverses  its 
direction  or  sense.  All  that  remains  to  be  done  is  to  follow  this 
interpretation  to  its  logical  consequences.  It  appears  at  once  that 
minus  a negative  quantity  is  a positive  quantity;  thus:  — (— q)  = q. 
It  will  be  observed  that  the  arithmetical  notion  of  the  minus  sign, 
as  a sign  of  mere  subtraction  or  “taking  from,  ” has  been  abandoned;, 
and  the  sooner  this  notion  can  be  abandoned  by  the  teacher  of 
algebra  the  better. 

The  operation  of  multiplying  by  a negative  quantity  may  now  be 
logically  interpreted.  Let  the  multiplier  be  —m,  which  may  be 
written  ( — 1 x m).  In  order  to  multiply  by  —m  we  must  therefore 
multiply  by  (1.  e.,  operate  with)  — 1,  which  reverses  the  sign  of  the 
multiplicand,  after  which  the  result  of  this  operation  must  be 
enumerated  m times.  Algebraic  division  may  perhaps  be  most 
readily  disposed  of  by  regarding  the  dividend  as  the  product  of 
quotient  and  divisor. 

It  is  not  presumed  that  the  teacher  of  algebra  can  deal  with  the 
question  of  the  minus  sign  in  the  above  summary  manner.  However, 
the  line  of  treatment  indicated  is  that  which  should  be  strictly 
adhered  to,  whatever  simplification  may  be  necessary  in  the  class 
room.  The  able  teacher  will  resort  to  no  subterfuge.  If  the  matter 
is  really  too  difficult  for  the  pupil’s  comprehension,  it  were  better  to 
allow  him  to  work  by  mere  rule  than  to  imagine  he  has  explained 
the  operations  of  algebra  from  the  standpoint  of  arithmetic. 


60 


In  the  high  school  course  the  pupil  should  be  familiarized  with 
every  form  of  algebraic  notation  and  with  the  use  of  equations  of 
the  simpler  types.  However,  this  purely  mechanical  facility  in 
handling  algebraic  expressions  should  not  be  made  an  end,  but 
rather  a means.  It  is  highly  important  that  the  pupil  be  able  to 
state  given  definite  relations  between  things  in  mathematical  lan- 
guage, that  is,  by  means  of  algebraic  symbols.  Without  this  ability , 
any  amount  of  facility  in  the  manipulation  of  algebraic  forms  is  of 
comparatively  little  use.  It  is  the  formation  of  the  equation 
employed  in  the  solution  of  a given  problem,  rather  than  the  purely 
mechanical  process  of  “finding  the  unknown,”  that  puts  the 
reasoning  powers  of  the  student  to  the  severest  test.  It  is  in  the 
reduction  of  problems  to  symbolic  statement,  not  in  the  mere  juggling 
of  the  symbols  themselves,  that  algebra  affords  a high  type  of 
mental  discipline. 

It  is  not  to  be  inferred  from  the  above  that  the  purely  me- 
chanical or  manipulative  processes  of  algebra  are  to  be  regarded 
as  of  secondary  importance  in  the  practical  teaching  of  the  subject. 
The  means  to  the  end  which  should  be  kept  constantly  in  view  are, 
after  all,  no  less  important  than  the  end  itself;  and  there  is  little 
danger  that  the  mechanical  processes  of  algebra  will  receive  too 
much  attention.  The  real  difiiculty  is  that  in  too  many  cases  the 
teaching  of  mathematics  is  itself  quite  too  mechanical  a process. 
Pupils  are  assigned  exercises  from  the  text-book  without  any  clear 
idea  as  to  the  purpose  to  be  served  by  such  exercises.  Again,  too 
much  time  is  devoted  to  problems  which  have  no  conceivable  rela- 
tion to  anything  except  to  their  own  answers;  which  criticism 
applies  with  more  force  to  current  text-books  than  to  the  teachers 
using  them. 

At  every  step  the  matter  of  correct  notation  and  correct  form 
should  be  given  careful  attention.  Pupils  should,  for  example,  be 
broken  of  the  very  common  habit  of  connecting  with  the  sign  of 
equality  expressions  which  are  not  equal,  but  which  are  merely  de- 
rived from  each  other.  In  this  connection  another  point,  too  fre- 
quently overlooked,  may  be  specifically  mentioned,  viz:  that  condi- 
tions and  operations  would  better  be  expressed  in  the  first  member 
of  an  equation,  and  the  results  in  the  second. 

Geometrical  concepts  may  be  and  should  be  constantly  associ- 
ated with  algebraic  forms.  For  example,  may  be  considered  as 
representing  the  area  of  a square,  each  of  whose  sides  is  the  line  x; 
ax  that  of  a rectangle  having  the  sides  a and  x;  while  in  such  an 
expression  as  x"^  -|-  2 ax,  the  terms  x"^  and  2 ax  may  be  referred  to 
as  the  square  term  and  the  rectangular  term  respectively.  In  fact 
this  expression  ^x^  -\-2  ax)  may  be  represented  as  a square  of  side.;!;, 


61 


ax 

a‘^ 

ax 

bordered  on  two  (adjacent)  sides  by  rectangles  of  width  a and  ;i;, 
thus  leaving  a notch  at  one  corner  which  may  be  exactly  filled  out 
by  the  addition  of  the  square  whose  side  is  a;  which  last  operation 
is,  by  the  way,  merely  the  geometrical  equivalent  of  the  algebraic 
process  of  “completing  the  square  “ of  the  given  expression.  Such 
ideas,  simple  in  themselves,  should  be  followed  out  as  far  as  the 
student’s  limited  knowledge  of  geometry  will  warrant. 

In  presenting  the  theory  of  the  quadratic  equation  care  should 
be  taken  to  impress  upon  the  mind  of  the  student  the  fact  that  every 
such  equation  has  two  roots,  even  though  they  be  equal.  In  no  case 
should  he  be  allowed  to  solve  such  an  equation  without  finding  both 
roots ; and  if  the  equation  has  originated  in  the  statement  of  a prob- 
lem of  any  sort,  the  significance  of  both  roots  should  be  carefully 
examined.  In  a recent  entrance  examination,  held  at  one  of  our 
colleges,  the  following  problem  was  proposed:  “A  rectangular  lot 

contains  180  square  rods.  If  one  side  were  increased  five  rods  and 
the  other  six  rods,  its  area  would  be  doubled.  What  are  the  dimen- 
sions of  the  lot?  ” Of  about  thirty  candidates  taking  the  examination 
a good  percentage  obtained  a correct  solution;  but  only  one  obtained 
both  solutions  of  the  problem.  The  instance  is  an  instructive  one 
and  is  cited  only  for  that  reason. 

There  is  no  operation  in  algebra  of  greater  importance  than 
that  of  factoring,  and  the  student  should  be  so  persistently  drilled 
in  the  process  that  all  the  ordinary  composite  expressions,  »when 
presented  to  him,  fall  at  once  into  their  primal  elements.  Famili- 
arity with  algebraic  forms  is  of  the  greatest  importance  to  the  stu- 
dent undertaking  the  study  of  higher  mathematics,  and  in  no  way 
can  he  be  taught  to  recognize  and  comprehend  such  forms  more 
readily  than  by  continued  exercise  in  factoring.  Incidentally  he 
should  learn  to  regard  the  solution  of  an  equation,  whether  of  the 
first,  second,  or  higher  degree,  as  being  essentially  a process  of 
factoring. 

The  processes  of  finding  the  highest  common  divisor  and  the 
lowest  common  multiple  should  be  carefully  analyzed  and  thor- 
oughly mastered  by  practice.  Both  processes  are  of  considerable 
importance  in  advanced  algebra. 


62 


The  subject  of  radicals  is  one  in  which  students  are  always 
more  or  less  deficient  upon  entering  college.  A thorough  mastery 
of  the  theory  of  exponents  is  doubtless  the  simplest  means  of 
clearing  up  the  difficulties  attending  the  use  of  the  time-honored 
radical  notation.  Familiarity  with  the  significance  of  fractional 
and  negative  exponents  is  indispensable,  to  the  student  of  higher 
mathematics,  and  their  frequent  use  should  be  insisted  upon  from 
the  beginning.  It  may  be  noticed  that  the  principles  involved  in 
the  use  of  logarithms  are  but  an  application  of  the  theory  of 
exponents.  As  a matter  of  notation  the  student  should  be  required 
to  express  his  results,  when  fractional,  in  such  form  that  all 
denominators  shall  be  rational:  thus,  “one  divided  by  the  square 
root  of  two.”  The  significance  of  “zero”  as  an  exponent  should 
be  carefully  explained. 

In  both  algebra  and  geometry,  ratio  and  proportion  as  well  as 
the  closely  related  subjects  of  variation,  should  be  very  carefully 
and  thoroughly  taught.  The  ideas  here  involved  are  probably  the 
most  fundamental  and  far-reaching  of  any  in  the  whole  field  of 
mathematics. 

In  the  study  of  geometry  the  difficulty  encountered  by  the  stu- 
dent lies  rather  in  the  vagueness  of  his  conceptions  than  in  the 
subtlety  of  the  reasoning,  this  being  of  the  very  simplest  sort. 
In  fact,  pure  reasoning  does  not  afford  the  best  mental  discipline. 
“No  argument  presents  serious  difficulty  or  calls  for  much  mental 
effort  to  follow  it  when  once  its  terms  are  clearly  understood;  for 
no  such  argument  can  be  harder  to  understand  than  the  general 
syllogism  of  which  it  is  a special  case,  and  that  is  of  well-known 
simplicity.  The  real  difficulty  lies  in  forming  clear  notions  of 
things;  and  in  doing  this  all  the  higher  faculties  are  brought  into 
play.  It  is  this  formation  of  concepts,  too,  that  is  the  really  im- 
portant part  of  mental  training.  He  who  forms  them  clearly  and 
accurately  may  be  safely  trusted  to  put  them  together  correctly. 
Logical  blunders  are  comparatively  rare.  Nearly  every  s.eeming 
mistake  in  reasoning  is  really  a mistake  In  conception.  If  this  be 
false,  that  will  be  invalid.” 

The  student  should,  accordingly,  be  at  once  thoroughly 
grounded  in  the  definitions  and  language  of  geometry.  There 
should  be  nothing  vague  about  the  one,  and  nothing  indefinite  or 
ambiguous  about  the  other.  No  other  exercise  in  the  high  school 
curriculum  affords  as  good  an  opportunity  for  training  in  the 
exact  and  concise  use  of  English  as  does  the  recitation  in  geom- 
etry. Not  only  should  purely  geometrical  terms  be  correctly  used, 
but  the  confusion  of  such  terms  as  similar,  equivalent,  equal,  and 
identical  should  be  carefully  avoided.  Every  theorem  should  be 
clearly  understood  before  its  demonstration  i*s  attempted,  and  the 
student  should  be  able  to  state  it  correctly  and  concisely,  whether 


63 


the  language  used  be  his  own  or  that  to  be  found  in  the  book. 
The  practice  of  memorizing  theorems  by  number  and  book  has 
nothing  to  recommend  it  at  the  present  day,  whatever  may  have 
been  the  case  when  Euclid  was  the  text  universally  used.  In  the 
demonstration  at  the  blackboard  the  figure  used  should  not  be  a 
duplicate  of  that  found  in  the  text,  nor  should  the  same  lettering 
be  permitted.  Each  theorem  should  stand  for  a definite,  but  not 
isolated,  geometrical  concept  without  being  associated  with  any 
particular  figure  by  which  it  may  have  been  demonstrated. 

The  constant  use  of  drawing  instruments  should  be  not  only 
encouraged,  but  insisted  upon.  A compass,  a pair  of  dividers,  a 
straight  edge,  a good  scale  of  equal  parts,  a small  “T  square,’' 
and  a rectangular  pine  board  of  dimensions  16  x 12  x i inches, 
together  with  a few  “thumb  tacks,”  make  up  a very  satisfactory 
and  yet  cheap  laboratory  equipment  for  the  study  of  geometry. 
Every  theorem  discussed  should  be  the  subject  of  careful  con- 
struction, and  original  problems  should  be  treated  in  the  same 
thorough  manner.  Patterns  for  cardboard  models  of  the  various 
solids  studied  should  be  drawn  and  the  models  themselves  con- 
structed. The  study  of  geometry  thus  assumes  something  of  the 
nature  and  acquires  much  of  the  practical  value  of  manual  train- 
ing. The  constant  introduction  of  original  problems  of  a difficulty 
carefully  adjusted  to  the  acquirements  of  the  individual  student  is 
a matter  of  the  very  greatest  importance  and  should  never  be 
neglected. 

Attention  may  here  be  called  to  the  fact  that  the  relation 
between  algebra  and  geometry  is  a mutual  one.  Not  only  does 
algebra  admit  of  geometrical  interpretation,  but  on  the  other 
hand,  geometrical  relations  really  leqd  themselves  to  analytical 
expression.  The  teacher  familiar  with  analytical  geometry  will 
find  many  opportunities  to  make  use  of  the  fundamental  unity  of 
the  two  sciences. 

It  may  be  suggested  in  this  connection  that  the  “dimensions” 
of  the  formulae  of  geometry  may  be  observed  to  good  advantage. 
For  example,  the  formulae  for  the  area  of  a triangle,  yi  ab,  is  of 
the  second  degree  in  the  linear  dimensions,  a and  b,  of  the  figure. 
The  same  is  to  be  observed  of  the  formula  of  any  area;  while  it  is 
equally  true  that  the  formulae  for  volumes  are  uniformly  of  the 
third  degree,  whatever  linear  dimensions  may  be  employed  in 
such  formulae.  Much  of  the  confusion  of  formulae  commonly  ob- 
served among  students,  e.  g.,  the  confusion  of  those  for  the  area 
and  for  the  circumference  of  a circle,  may  be  avoided  by  calling 
attention  to  this  principle.  Moreover,  this  theory  of  the  “dimen- 
sions” of  magnitudes  is  of  the  widest  application  alike  in  the 
mathematical  and  in  the  puysical  sciences.* 


*See  W.  Stanley  Jevon’s  Principles  of  Science,  Second  Ed.,  p.  325. 


64 


Another  point  to  be  emphasized  as  the  student  gains  command 
of  a considerable  range  of  geometrical  facts  is  that  there  is  a cer- 
tain continuity  running  through  whole  groups  of  theorems.  It  is 
easy  to  show,  for  example,  that  the  theorems  giving  the  square 
on  the  side  opposite  an  obtuse  angle  of  a plane  triangle,  and  that 
giving  the  square  on  the  side  opposite  an  acute  angle  are  in  reality 
continuous  through  the  Pythagorean  theorem.  It  is  a splendid 
exercise  now  and  then,  and  an  excellent  review  as  well,  to  follow 
a theorem  back  to  the  fundamental  axioms  of  geometry. 

No  effort  should  be  spared  to  make  it  clear  to  the  student  that 
geometry  is  a flawless  piece  of  logic.  He  will  And  it  at  first  a 
structure  of  bewildering  complexity;  in  the  end,  if  properly 
taught,  one  of  amazing  simplicity.  That  he  may  make  this  pro- 
gress, however,  the  subject  must  be  constantly  reviewed;  and, 
moreover,  there  must  be  required  of  him,  not  merely  a passively 
receptive  attention,  but  an  actively  sustained  attention  such  as  he 
has  not  before  been  called  upon  to  exercise.  It  is  the  inability,  or 
at  least  the  failure,  to  yield  this  necessary  attention,  and  not  the 
difficulty  of  the  reasoning,  that  constitutes  the  great  stumbling 
block  of  students  of  mathematics  in  general.  The  faculty  of  yield- 
ing such  attention  to  any  matter  under  consideration,  whether  it 
be  a theorem  in  geometry  or  a question  of  every-day  life,  is  the 
greatest  benefit  which  the  study  of  mathematics  can  bestow;  and 
no  other  study  in  the  high  school  can  quite  compare  with  that  of 
geometry  in  the  extent  to  which  it  develops  that  faculty. 

In  order  that  the  student  may  take  up  the  mathematics  of  the 
freshman  year  in  college  to  advantage  he  should  carry  his  high 
school  work  in  that  subject  through  to  the  end  of  his  course. 
During  the  last  year  in  the  high  school  an  energetic  review  of  the 
whole  course  in  mathematics  should  be  undertaken.  Not  only 
will  this  review  be  found  beneficial  in  itself,  but  the  higher  point 
of  view  now  attained  may  be  taken  advantage  of  in  many  ways. 

It  too  frequently  happens  that  students  are  seriously  handi- 
capped upon  entering  college  by  having  spent  the  last  year  in  the 
high  school  upon  studies  which  have  little  value  as  preparatory 
work.  How  this  difficulty  may  best  be  remedied  is  a question 
which  needs  to  be  seriously  considered.  That  the  public  high 
school  cannot  be  merely,  or  even  primarily,  a preparatory  school 
for  the  college  is  obvious  enough;  but  it  does  not  seem  unreason- 
able to  hope  that,  as  our  high  schools  come  to  be  more  liberally 
supported,  special  preparatory  courses  may  be  provided  for  such 
students  as  intend  to  continue  their  studies  in  college.  This 
break  in  continuity  now  existing  between  the  work  of  the  high 
school  and  that  of  the  college  is  one  of  the  most  serious  defects  in 
the  present  educational  curriculum, — one  which  is  becoming  more 


65 


serious  as  the  opportunity  to  obtain  a college  education  is  open 
to  an  ever  increasing  number  of  young  men  and  women. 

Laenas  G.  WkIvD, 

D.  S.  Wright. 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 

Educational  Value  oe  Physical  Geography— Your  committee 
commends  the  well-nigh  universal  study  of  Physical  Geography  in 
the  schools  of  the  state;  and  its  members  indulge  the  hope  that,  as 
larger  and  larger  place  is  given  to  science  in  the  future,  the  room 
allotted  to  the  group  of  earth  sciences  will  be  increased  rather  than 
diminished.  These  sciences,  we  believe,  are  surpassed  by  none  in 
educational  value  to  the  student  preparing  for  college  or  for  life. 
The  imagination  is  tasked  to  conceive  the  processes  of  nature  and  the 
place  of  our  planet  in  time  and  space,  and  is  ennobled  to  a degree 
impossible  with  fanciful,  romantic  and  merely  literary  material. 
The  study  of  nature  is  also  of  the  highest  ethical  value.  Daily  con- 
tact with  solid,  unalterable  facts  and  laws  makes  for  sane  thinking 
and  right  living,  and  gives  an  abiding  confidence  in  the  veracity  of 
the  world,  which  seems  to  be  the  speediest  cure  for  popular  delu- 
sions which  an  education  exclusively  literary  would  be  unable  to 
prevent. 

Definition  and  Scope  of  the  Science— Physical  Geography,  as 
the  term  is  now  used,  is  a very  different  science  from  that  which  was 
presented  under  the  same  name  a quarter  of  a century  ago.  For  the 
new  science  of  Physical  Geography  there  is  a tendency  among  some 
writers  to  substitute  the  new  term.  Physiography,  and  there  is 
probably  some  propriety  in  giving  modern  Physical  Geography  a 
distinctive  name.  At  all  events  our  science,  in  its  widest  sense, 
may  include  in  its  scope  the  whole  material  universe;  but  in  a re- 
stricted sense  it  deals  with  the  universe  in  its  relations  to  man.  Man 
is  the  central  figure,  and  the  relative  importance  of  the  various 
topics  into  which  Physical  Geography  may  be  divided  is  to  be 
measured  by  the  extent  to  which  the  facts  and  phenomena  under 
consideration  exercise  a determining  influence  on  human  activities 
and  human  progress.  From  this  point  of  view.  Physical  Geography 
is  the  science  which  treats  of  man’s  physical  environment.  Com- 
pared with  the  older  Physical  Geography,  it  has  less  to  do  with 
Ethnology— with  the  characteristics  which  distinguish  the  races  of 
men  one  from  another — and  more  with  what  men  of  any  race  do  and 
become  under  varying  conditions  of  soil,  climate  and  other  surround- 
ing circumstances.  It  deals  less  with  astronomy  and  more  with 
earth  itself;  less  with  the  taxonomic,  and  more  with  the  economic, 
phases  of  Zoology  and  Botany;  less  with  the  biological,  and  more 
with  the  physical  aspects  of  the  globe;  less  with  air  and  sea,  and 


66 


more  with  land,  This  modern  Physical  Geography  considers  the 
causes  and  consequences  of  physical  environment,  and  does  it  with 
a degree  of  success  which  would  have  been  impossible  ten  years 
ago.  Environment  reacts  on  the  human  organism  in  many  notable 
ways,  in  some  places  presenting  every  stimulus  and  every  oppor- 
tunity for  man’s  highest  development,  in  others  hedging  him  round 
with  insurmountable  limitations.  Physical  Geography,  levying 
tribute  upon  the  related  science  Geology,  treats  of  the  genesis  of 
continents,  mountains,  interior  plateaus,  coastal  plains  and  river 
valleys.  It  writes  the  history  and  development  of  the  minor  forms 
of  surface  relief.  It  tells  of  the  origin  of  rocks  and  soils.  It  points 
out  the  physical  causes  which  have  influenced  the  present  distribu- 
tion of  plants  and  animals.  In  a word  it  investigates  as  to  charac- 
ter, cause  and  consequence,  all  the  phenomena  that  affect  man’s  re- 
lation to  the  globe  on  which  he  lives. 

Eand  Forms— The  subject  of  topographic  forms  will  properly 
demand  a large  share  of  attention.  The  texts  recommended  in 
another  part  of  this  report  describe  fully  the  forms  of  surface  relief, 
and  the  successive  steps  in  land  sculpturing  from  topographic  youth 
to  topographic  age;  and  the  teacher  can  scarcely  do  better  than 
thoroughly  to  master  the  significance  of  the  facts  and  carefully  to 
follow  the  order  and  method  of  presentation  he  finds  in  these  publi- 
cations. The  land  forms  of  Iowa  are  not  described  specifically  in 
any  texts,  but  some  information  on  this  topic  will  be  found  in  the 
reports  of  the  National  and  State  Geological  Surveys.  The  subject, 
so  far  as  it  relates  to  Iowa,  falls  into  two  divisions: 

I.  The  topography  of  the  Driftless  Area. 

II.  The  topography  of  the  Drift-covered  Area. 

The  Driftless  Area  lies  mostly  in  Wisconsin,  but  it  embraces  a 
small  portion  of  Northeastern  Iowa.  The  topography  is  mature.  It 
has  been  developed  by  erosion  of  indurated  rocks,  and  the  varying 
hardness  of  these  rocks  has  given  rise  to  many  interesting  modifica- 
tions of  detail.  The  relief  is  much  greater  than  in  other  parts  of  the 
state.  A difference  in  altitude  of  six  or  seven  hundred  feet  may  be 
experienced  in  a few  miles,  and  some  of  the  river  bluffs  descend  at 
a high  angle,  almost  sheer,  for  three  or  four  hundred  feet.  This 
whole  topography  has  been  developed  by  erosion  of  an  uplifted 
peneplain.  Entrenched  meanders  are  a common  feature  of  the  river 
valleys.* 

The  Drift-covered  Area  presents  a variety  of  land  forms.  In 
some  instances  the  present  surface  configuration  is  controlled  by 
the  preglacial  topography,  but  in  general  the  surface  features  are 
dependent  on  the  original  construction  or  subsequent  erosion  of  the 


*On  this  whole  subject,  see  article  on  The  Driftless  Area,  Sixth  Ann.  Report,  U.  S.  Geol. 
Pleistocene  History  of  Northeastern  Iowa,  . S.  Geol.  Sur.;  Re- 

ports on  Allamakee  and  Dubuque  Counties,  Iowa,  Geol.  Sur.;  and  The  Switzerland  of  Iowa 
in  The  Midland  Monthly  for  May,  1895. 


67 


drift.  There  are  g-reat  differences  in  age  between  the  sheets  of  drift 
occupying  the  surface  in  different  parts  of  Iowa.  Certain  regions 
covered  by  later  drift  present  a surface  that  is  to-day  in  practically 
the  condition  in  which  the  glaciers  left  it.  The  topography  is  young, 
wholly  undeveloped;  and  its  extreme  youth  is  expressed  in  un- 
eroded plains,  absence  of  stream  channels,  and  absence  of  river  val- 
leys. Young  drift  plains  are  seen  in  the  Illinoian  area  around 
Mediapolis  and  Morning  Sun;  in  the  Iowan  area  they  are  well  dis- 
played in  Buchanan,  Bremer,  Floyd,  eastern  Cerro  Gordo,  and 
generally  throughout  the  counties  of  northeastern  Iowa;  and  they 
are  found  best  of  all  in  the  Wisconsin  area,  as,  for  example,  in  the 
counties  of  Hancock,  Wright,  Humboldt  and  all  the  others  in  the 
north-central  part  of  the  state.  Youthful  topography  is  also  ex- 
pressed in  the  anomalous  topographic  forms  so  well  illustrated  in 
the  moraines  of  the  Wisconsin  drift.  In  morainic  areas  the  surface 
is  rough  and  hilly,  but  the  inequalities  are  due  to  construction  and 
not  to  erosion.  Around  the  ice  margin  the  drift  was  lawlessly 
heaped  into  irregular  hills,  with  shapeless,  ill-drained  interspaces 
bearing  no  resemblance  to  dichotomously  branched  valleys  of 
erosion.  Morainic  topography  is  seen  in  a belt,  six  or  eight  miles 
wide,  north  and  south  of  Clear  Take.  A number  of  pronounced 
morainic  belts  are  found  in  Dickinson  County,  and  here,  as  else- 
where, the  lake  basins  of  Iowa  are  features  of  the  morainic  topo- 
graphy. 

The  southern  half  of  Iowa,  west  of  the  Illinoian  margin,  is  occu- 
pied, superficially,  by  very  old  drift;  the  drift  of  the  Kansan  stage 
being  the  most  conspicuous.  In  general,  throughout  this  whole 
area,  the  surface  is  characterized  by  mature  erosional  topography 
cut  in  the  drift.  The  relief  is  not  very  great,  and  yet  there  are 
valleys  of  erosion  150  to  200  feet  in  depth.  The  valleys  are  usually 
wide,  and  the  slopes,  back  to  the  water-sheds  between  the  larger 
streams,  are  all  carved  into  a series  of  rounded  ridges  separated  by 
a complex  system  of  branching  ravines.  It  is  in  southwestern  Iowa 
that  the  effects  of  drift  erosion  are  most  pronounced.  These  effects 
are  typically  illustrated  in  the  heavy  drift  of  Ringgold,  Taylor  and 
Page  counties. 

The  southern  and  western  parts  of  Iowa,  the  parts  lying  outside 
the  areas  which  were  covered  by  the  Iowan  and  Wisconsin  ice  sheets, 
have  the  older  drift  overlain  by  loess.  The  loess  usually  forms  a 
thin  veneer  conforming  to  the  inequalities  produced  by  erosion 
before  the  process  of  loess  deposition  began;  but  in  some  places  it 
attains  a considerable  thickness.  The  loess  is  soft;  it  cuts  readily; 
and  where  thickest  it  develops  a topography  of  ^^its  own  of  an  exag- 
gerated erosional  type.  Steep-sided  gullies  and  irregular  hills  are 
among  its  prominent  characteristics.  Bordering  the  flood  plain  of 
the  Missouri  river,  from  Sioux  City  to  the  southwest  corner  of  the 
state,  there  are  steep,  pointed,  irregular  hills  and  sharp  crests  of 


68 


loess  mingled  with  eminences  having  more  rounded,  flowing  out- 
lines. It  is  probable  that  some  of  the  peculiarities  of  the  region  may 
be  due  to  the  fact  that  the  hills  and  ridges,  in  whole  or  in  part,  were, 
like  snow  drifts,  heaped  up  by  the  wind.  The  loess  here  attains  its 
maximum  thickness,  and  erosion  produces  many  fantastic  effects. 

Other  land  forms  found  within  the  glaciated  area  are  known  as 
Drumlins,  Paha,  Karnes  and  JSskers.  Karnes  and  Kskers  are  best 
seen  in  Iowa  in  the  area  of  the  Wisconsin  drift.  The  great  Ocheyedan 
mound  in  Osceola  county  is  an  unusually  flne  example  of  a Kame.* 

A study  of  the  river  valleys  of  Iowa  reveals  the  interesting  fact 
that  streams  differ  very  largely  as  to  age.  In  the  areas  covered 
with  Wisconsin  and  Iowan  drift  the  streams  are  young.  They  flow 
in  shallow  channels,  and  their  banks  are  on  a level  with  the  great 
drift  plains  which  checkered  with  fields  and  dotted  with  farm  houses, 
stretch  away  on  either  hand  to  the  horizon.  There  are  no  valleys, 
no  flood  plains.  Such  a stream  is  shown  in  Figure  12,  page  128,  Iowa 
Geological  Survey,  Volume  VII.,  and  is  described  in  the  accompany- 
ing text.  Compare  this  with  the  stream  shown  in  Figure  10,  page 
104,  Volume  IV.  of  the  same  series  of  reports.  The  channel  of  the 
Mississippi  river  seems  to  be  made  up  of  old  and  new  fragments 
pieced  together.  The  valley  is  narrow  at  Dubuque,  narrower  still  at 
Teclaire,  and  it  expands  to  a width  of  eight  miles  at  Burlington. 
During  the  Glacial  Epoch  the  valley  was  the  common  meeting 
ground  of  glaciers  coming  from  the  northwest  and  from  the  north- 
east. Sometimes  one  set  prevailed,  sometimes  the  other;  and  the 
stream  was  shifted  back  and  forth  a number  of  times.  In  places  the 
channel  was  choked  with  glacial  detritus  and  was  not  recovered  after 
the  ice  melted  and  disappeared.  At  two  points  along  the  eastern 
border  of  Iowa,  the  Mississippi  is  working  at  a comparatively  new 
channel  and  doing  its  best  to  cut  it  down  to  grade.  These  points  are 
the  LeClaire  and  Keokuk  rapids. 

Tkxts — We  have  noticed  with  pleasure  the  advance  of  the  last 
decade  in  the  teaching  of  geography,  as  evidenced  by  the  texts  now 
in  use  in  the  grammar  grades.  No  better  preparation  can  anywhere 
be  obtained  for  the  study  of  physiography  than  that  furnished  by  an 
intelligent  use  of  Fry’s,  Redway  and  Hinman’s,  Tarr’s  or  Dryer’s 
geographies,  to  mention  these  admirable  books  in  the  order  of  their 
issue.  Until  recently  the  text  books  in  Physical  Geography  have 
been  wholly  inadequate  and  have  required  revision  by  the  teacher 
both  by  addition  and  by  subtraction.  Consisting  of  loose  congeries 
of  compends  of  all  sciences,  they  have  brought  vexation  to  the 
teacher  and  tribulation  to  the  pupil,  and  to  their  defects  are  due  the 
objections  made  to  the  place  of  the  study  in  the  high  school.  To 


*On  the  subject  of  Paha  see  Pleistocene^  History  of  Northeastern  Iowa,  by  W.  J.  McGee, 
Eleventh  Ann.  Report,  U.  S.  Geol.  Sur.;  on  the  subject  of  Kames  and  Eskers  consult  The 
Great  Ice  Ase,  by  J ames  Geikie. 


69 


your  committee  four  recent  text  books  in  this  science  seem  worthy 
of  special  commendation,  those  respectively  by  William  Morris 
Davis,  (Ginn  & Co.);  Charles  R.  Dryer  (American  Book  Co.);  Ralph 
S.  Tarr  (The  Macmillan  Co.);  and  Jaques  W.  Redway  (Charles 
Scribners’  Sons). 

Methods— Taking-  for  granted  that  the  recitation  tests  thoroughly 
the  acquisition  of  the  text,  it  remains  for  the  teacher  to  clarify  and 
crystallize  the  pupil’s  impressions,  to  illustrate,  to  awaken  thought, 
to  kindle  interest,  and  to  suggest  pertinent  problems  for  solution. 
A special  advantage  held  by  the  earth  sciences  is  that  the  laboratory 
of  the  fields  and  the  open  air  is  placed  at  the  free  disposal  of  all 
students.  The  example  of  the  German  schoolmaster,  who  makes 
the  excursion  an  important  part  of  his  geographic  instruction,  is 
worthy  of  the  closest  following.  The  work  of  running  water,  the 
processes  of  rock  decay  and  the  formation  of  soils,  the  relations  of 
plants  and  animals  to  station,  the  forms  of  clouds  and  all  the 
phenomena  of  the  weather  are  a few  examples  of  topics  best  studied 
in  the  field.  All  accessible  outcrops  of  rock  and  exposures  of  glacial 
drift  will  be  examined,  and  a topographic  map  may  be  prepared 
showing  the  relief  of  the  vicinity.  On  such  excursions  the  passion 
of  the  collector  need  not  be  repressed,  but  the  aim  must  be  distinctly 
other  than  picking  up  specimens.  Where  Astronomy  is  not  taught, 
many  observations  may  be  made  most  profitably  of  the  place  and 
movements  of  the  members  of  the  solar  system,  and  in  all  concerning 
the  planet  or  the  life  of  man  upon  it,  these  can  hardly  be  too 
thorough. 

We  recommend  that  laboratory  work  in  the  school  room  be  given 
the  largest  possible  place.  Recent  manuals  suggest  many  details  of 
such  work,  and  no  directions  will  here  be  needful. 

Apparatus.— We  emphasize  the  fact  that  Physical  Geography 
as  well  as  Chemistry  and  Physics,  requires  a material  equipment  in 
order  to  be  taught  with  the  highest  degree  of  success.  New  high 
school  buildings,  at  least  in  our  larger  towns,  should  make  provision 
for  a physiographic  laboratory.  No  indoors  approach  to  the  study  of 
land  forms  is  so  direct  as  that  by  way  of  the  relief  map  or  model.  Of 
extant  models  we  place  first  the  Harvard  geographical  series  of 
three,  issued  by  Ginn  & Co. , Boston,  at  $12  net  for  the  set.  The  forms 
of  mountain  and  plain,  of  valley  and  shore  which  they  illustrate,  are 
too  numerous  to  be  mentioned  here.  Many  of  their  lessons  are  so 
obvious  that  they  may  be  used  In  the  grammar  grades,  and  some  of 
the  problems  they  present  will  test  the  ability  of  the  most  advanced 
pupils.  They  should  be  in  every  high  school  in  Iowa  where  Physi- 
cal Geography  is  scientifically  taught. 

We  commend  also  the  relief  maps  published  under  the  direction 
of  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  by  K.  K.  Howell,  of  Washington. 
While  the  cost  of  these  magnificent  models  may  place  them  beyond 


70 


the  reach  of  many  of  our  high  schools,  their  value  in  instruction 
each  year  will  be  found  far  in  excess  of  the  annual  interest  which 
might  be  reckoned  on  the  investment.  Of  these  we  mention  the 
relief  maps  of  the  United  States,  of  different  sizes,  and  ranging  in 
price  from  $25  to  $125;  the  Grand  Canyon  of  the  Colorado,  with  part 
of  Utah  (and,  by  way  of  comparison,  the  Yosemite  canyon  and 
the  Niagara  gorge  on  the  same  scale),  $125;  Mount  Shasta,  a typical 
volcanic,  cone,  $40;  and  the  Chattanooga  District,  illustrating  pene- 
planation  and  the  adjustment  of  rivers,  $65. 

Cheap  relief  maps  of  the  continents  and  of  the  United  States,  in 
which  the  vertical  scale  is  grossly  exaggerated,  are  caricatures  which 
teach  at  least  as  much  of  error  as  of  truth.  In  general,  the  educa- 
tional value  of  a model,  so  far  as  the  specific  study  of  land  forms  is 
concerned,  is  in  inverse  ratio  to  the  size  of  the  area  represented.  It 
will  sometimes  be  possible  to  enlist  the  help  of  students  with  special 
aptitudes  in  this  direction,  but  such  work,  if  thoroughly  done,  is  so 
expensive  in  time  that  we  cannot  recommend  it  as  a general  exer- 
cise. This  objection,  however,  does  not  apply  to  models  made  of 
dry  sand,  manipulated  chiefly  with  funnels,  since  relief  can  be  thus 
rendered  with  the  minimum  of  time  and  with  a fair  degree  of  ac- 
curacy. 

Topographic  maps  are  so  useful  and  so  cheap  that  their  absence 
in  the  high  school  may  be  taken  to  indicate  something  else  than 
lack  of  funds.  Those  of  our  own  country  may  be  obtained  from  the 
Director  of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey,  Washington,  at 
five  cents  each,  or  two  dollars  per  hundred,  remittances  being  made 
by  money  order.  Of  these  we  recommend  as  of  special  use  the  Iowa 
sheets,  and  the  atlas  of  ten  sheets,  with  descriptive  text,  by  Gannett, 
termed  Folio  1,  Physiographic  Types,  and  costing  twenty-five  cents. 
An  excellent  list  of  selected  maps  is  given  in  ‘ ‘ Government  Maps  of 
Use  in  Schools U by  Davis,  King  & Collie,  Henry  Holt  & Co.,  New 
York,  price  thirty  cents.  * 

From  the  Mississippi  River  Commission,  St.  Louis,  may  be  pur- 
chased at  nominal  rates  several  series  of  maps  of  that  river,  of  which 
the  most  useful  perhaps  will  be  found  the  eight-sheet  set  showing 
the  flood  plain  and  the  areas  of  overflow  from  Cairo  to  the  Gulf. 
Daily  weather  maps  will  be  obtained  from  the  nearest  publishing 
station  of  the  United  States  Weather  Bureau. 

Many  of  the  phenomena  of  physiography  can  be  realized  in  the 
school  room  only  by  aid  of  the  photograph  or  drawing.  A collection 
of  typical  views  is  as  necessary  to  the  effective  teaching  of  land 
forms  as  is  a collection  of  fossils  in  historic  geology.  To  present 
such  views  impressively  to  the  entire  class  at  once,  so  that  each 
student  may  clearly  see  the  smallest  detail,  requires  apparatus  for 
projection.  A good  lantern  and  a collection  of  slides  may  therefore 
be  added  to  the  list  of  the  necessary  equipment  of  a good  physio- 


71 


graphic  laboratory.  The  screen  may  be  either  a white  wall  of  smooth 
surface,  or  a white  curtain  mounted  upon  a spring  roller.  The  room 
may  best  be  darkened  by  curtains  of  stiff,  heavy  and  opaque  ma- 
terial, running  in  slots  made  by  screwing  strips  of  wood  to  the  win- 
dow casings.  The  Heliopticon  is  specially  commended,  and  an 
excellent  instrument  can  be  obtained  at  the  McIntosh  Stereopticon 
Co. , Chicago,  at  moderate  expense.  Lantern  slides  cost  from  thirty  to 
fifty  cents  each,  and  none  but  typical  and  well  executed  should  be  pur- 
chased. An  excellent  set  of  about  one  hundred,  selected  for  the 
Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  schools,  by  Prof.  W.  M.  Davis,  is  issued 
by  E.  E.  Howell,  Washington. 

A w^ord  will  perhaps  suffice  as  to  the  necessary  meteorological 
equipment.  This  should  include  a barometer,  thermometer,  psy- 
chrometer  and  rain  gauge  at  the  least.  Many  suggestions  of  value 
as  to  their  use  will  be  found  in  Ward's  Practical  Exercises  in  Ele- 
mentary Meteorology,  published  by  Ginn  & Co.,  Boston. 

Books  of  RkfbrFnck. — Books  and  magazines  for  collateral 
reading  form  a necessary  part  of  the  equipment,  and  full  lists  will  be 
found  in  recent  text-books.  High  school  libraries  in  the  state  obtain 
the  publications  of  the  Iowa  Geological  Survey,  gratis,  by  applica- 
tion to  the  Director,  Des  Moines,  and  in  these  will  be  found  the 
fullest  description  of  the  physiographic  phenomena  of  our  own  state. 
Duplicate  copies  of  county  reports  may  sometimes  be  obtained 
through  members  of  the  state  legislature.  Of  magazines  the 
of  Geography , Lancaster,  Pa.,  $1.50,  will  be  found  particularly  useful. 
To  this  may  be  added  the  publications  of  the  different  geographic 
societies  of  America  and  the  Geographical  Journal  of  London. 

Samuel  Calvin, 

W.  H.  Norton. 


PHYSIOLOGY. 

I.  THINGS  TO  BE  ACCOMPLISHED. 

1.  The  pupil  should  acquire  a knowledge  of  the  general  struc- 
ture of  the  human  body  and  of  the  functions  of  its  various  parts. 

2.  He  should  have  sensible  ideas  regarding  hygiene,  both 
personal  and  public. 

3.  He  should  learn  something  of  scientific  method  and  acquire 
some  degree  of  dexterity  in  experimentation. 

4.  He  should  be  taught  in  the  practical  illustrative  exercises 
to  view  nature  at  first  hand,  using  microscope  and  other  apparatus 
when  necessary. 

5.  He  should  learn  that  the  living  body  is  a part  of  nature, 
and  as  such  never  transcends  the  operations  of  law;  that  law  for 
the  human  mechanism  is  as  inexorable  as  for  the  lowliest  worm 
that  crawls. 


72 


6.  He  should  see  that  the  human  body  is  holy,  to  be  rever- 
enced; that  a long  life  and  a healthy  body  depend  upon  individual 
conduct  and  not  upon  physicians’  prescriptions. 

II.  ORDER  OF  TREATMENT. 

1.  So  many  excellent  text  books  are  now  available  that  it  is 
hardly  necessary  to  suggest  more  than  the  use  of  a text  of  recent 
date. 

2.  But  any  student  in  physiology  should  begin  not  too  far 
afield  from  that  which  is  commonly  known. 

III.  ME^THODS  OF  STUDY. 

1.  The  method  of  presentation  should  combine  certain  work 
of  a practical  character  with  text  book  study.  This  practical 
work  should  embrace  the  observation  of  physiological  phenomena, 
experiments  so  simple  that  the  pupil  can  readily  make  them,  and 
dissections  and  demonstrations  in  anatomy. 

The  amount  of  dissection  that  may  be  performed  in  class 
illustrative  of  the  text  will  depend  somewhat  upon  public  opinion 
and  the  tact  of  the  teacher.  Very  profitable  comparisons  can  be 
made  between  the  anatomy  of  a rabbit  or  a cat  and  that  of  the 
human  body.  It  will  be  found  profitable  in  many  instances  to 
have  the  illustrative  work  in  a topic  precede  the  recitations.  The 
teacher  in  some  cases  can  prepare  dissections  and  demonstrations 
of  functions,  when  it  would  not  be  feasible  for  the  entire  class  to 
perform  the  particular  dissections.  But  as  far  as  possible,  the  pupil 
should  be  responsible  for  each  detail.  The  teacher  should  not 
allow  the  practical  work  to  become  an  insignificant  part  of  the 
study.  Expensive  apparatus  is  not  only  unnecessary,  but  is 
really  out  of  place.  Even  the  microscope  should  occupy  but  a 
minor  sphere.  The  unaided  eyes  of  the  pupil  will  elicit  nearly 
all  of  the  information  which  can  be  assimilated  at  this  period.  . 

2 Each  pupil  should  be  required  to  make  careful  drawings  of 
the  dissections  and  accurate  records  of  the  experiments.  The 
intimate  relationships  between  the  recitations  and  the  illustrative 
work  should  never  be  lost  sight  of. 

IV.  TKXT  AND  REFERENCE  BOOKS. 

The  following  texts  are  adapted  to  high  school  classes:  Blais- 
dell’s  Practical  Physiology;  Colton’s  Physiology,  Experimental 
and  Descriptive;  Foster  & Shore’s  Physiology  for  Beginners; 
Macy  & Norris’  Physiology  for  High  Schools;  Martin’s  Human 
Body,  Briefer  Course,  revised  by  Fritz;  Walker’s  Anatomy,  Physi- 
ology and  Hygiene. 

In  addition  to  the  directions  given  in  any  of  these  text  books, 
the  teacher  will  be  assisted  in  these  practical  exercises  by  the  fol- 
lowing: Foster  & Langley’s  Practical  Physiology;  Gorham  & 

Tower’s  Dissection  of  the  Cat;  Howell’s  Dissection  of  the  Dog; 


73 


Peabody’s  Laboratory  Exercises  in  Anatomy  and  Physiology; 
Sanford’s  Experimental  Psychology;  Stirling’s  Practical  Physi- 
ology. Gilbert  L.  Houser. 


PHYSICS. 

I.  METHOD  OF  TREATMENT. 

1.  Physics  is  not  to  be  considered  as  a series  of  disconnected 
subjects, — mechanics,  sound,  heat,  light  and  electricity,— but,  on 
the  contrary,  as  a body  of  connected  “well  organized  truth  form- 
ing one  great  whole.”  Consequently,  its  treatment  should  be 
continuous,  causing  one  subject  to  follow  another  connectedly, 
the  development  being  consecutive  and  natural. 

2.  The  phenomena  of  physics  are  those  of  natural  life.  The 
fund  of  facts  and  illustrations  is  already  in  the  possession  of  the 
pupil.  The  study  should  systematize  and  co-ordinate  them  and 
giye  the  pupil  an  ability  to  use  the  knowledge  acquired. 

3.  The  use  of  the  language  of  the  algebra  in  the  expression 
of  physical  relations  should  be  exceedingly  helpful  if  the  notation 
is  properly  chosen.  The  algebraic  question  is  “physical  short- 
hand” and  the  symbols  used  should  indicate  their  physical  inter- 
pretation. 

4.  The  development  of  physics  has  been  almost  wholly  the 
result  of  observation  and  experiment.  Any  sound  study  of  the 
subject,  then,  should  include  experiment,— laboratory  work  by  the 
pupil. 

5.  Less  than  one  full  year  is  inadequate  for  the  proper  study 
of  physics  in  secondary  schools.  The  last  year  in  the  high  school, 
if  possible,— never  earlier  than  the  last  but  one,— should  be 
assigned  to  the  subject.*  Four  periods  a week  may  be  given  to 
class  work,— recitation  and  solution  of  problems,  one  and  two- 
hour  periods  to  laboratory  work  (or  three  periods  may  be  given  to 
recitation  and  two  one-hour-and-a-half  periods  to  laboratory  work 
and  solution  of  problems.)  The  following  outline  is  arranged  for 
the  first  division  of  the  time.  It  may  be  easily  adapted  to  the  sec- 
ond by  increasing  the  number  of  laboratory  experiments  and  tak- 
ing time  from  the  laboratory  periods  for  the  solution  of  problems. 

6.  The  class  work  should  consist  of  recitation  from  the  text- 
book t explanation  and  expansion  of  the  more  difficult  matter  by 
the  instructor,  and  illustrations  of  the  principal  phenomena  by 
means  of  apparatus  at  the  lecture  table. 

7.  The  solution  of  problems  by  the  pupil  should  be  an  im- 

*See  report  of  Committee  on  Unification  of  Colleg’e  Entrance  Requirements,  Iowa  State 
Teachers’  Association.  1898. 

tThe  following- text-books  include  quite  fully  the  topics  outlined:  Crew — Elements  of 
Physics  (Macmillan);  Carhart  & Chute— Elements  of  Physics  (Allyn  & Bacon);  Gag-e’s 
Elements  of  Physics — Revised  (Ginn,  1898);  Hall  & Berg-en.  A Text-Book  of  Physics  (Holt); 
Avery — School  Physics  (Sheldon);  Wentworth  & Hill  (Qinn);  Rowland  and  A (Amer- 

ican Book  Co.) 


74 


portant  part  of  the  work.  The  questions  in  recitation  and  examin- 
ation should  be  expressed  in  such  a way  that  they  become  a test 
of  the  reasoning  power  of  the  pupil  rather  than  a test  of  memory. 

8.  The  laboratory  work  should  be  largely  of  a quantitative 
character,  carried  on  under  the  direct  supervision  of  the  instruct- 
or. The  pupil  should  have  detailed  instruction  for  carrying  out 
each  experiment.  This  may  be  accomplished  by  written  instruc- 
tions on  the  blackboard,  on  sheets,  or  by  use  of  a laboratory 
manual. t The  instructor  should  not  attempt  to  teach  more  than 
thirty  pupils  in  the  class  room  or  fifteen  in  the  laboratory  at  one 
time. 

9.  Careful  records  should  be  kept  by  the  pupil  of  the  results  of 
each  experiment,  and  care  should  be  exercised  to  see  that  these 
records  are  the  results  of  the  experiments  and  not  statements 
transcribed  from  the  text-book;  and  that  the  deductions  follow 
logically  from  the  date  observed  and  are  clearly  and  correctly  stated. 
Great  stress  should  be  laid  upon  the  quality  rather  than  the  quantity 
of  the  work,  and  care  and  accuracy  encouraged.  The  experiments 
given  in  the  list  are  those  common  to  the  best  laboratory  courses, 
and  are  sufficient  for  thirty-six  periods  of  two  hours  each.  The  list 
may  be  extended  indefinitely  to  suit  the  time  and  equipment.* * 

II.  outIvINe:  of  topics. 

Note:— Those  topics  marked  * should  be  illustrated  by  experi- 
ments, % should  be  emphasized  by  problems. 

7.  Introduction — 

(1)  Classification  of  subjects. 

(2)  Properties  of  matter. 

(3)  Conservation  of  matter. 

2,  Units — 

(1)  Fundamental  units. 

* % (2)  The  English  and  metric  .systems  of  units. 

Relation  between  them  (mass  and  length) . 

* (3)  Methods  of  measuring  length,  including  vernier  and 
micrometer. 

J.  Pure  motion  {Kinematics) . 

(1)  Definitions  of  velocity,  [speed,  acceleration  for  constant 
and  variable  motion. 
io  (2)  Uniform  motion. 


$Hall  & Bergen — A Text-Book  of  Physics  (Holt)  ; Allen — Laboratory  Physics;  Hays, 
Lowry  & Rishel — High  School  Laboratory  Manual  (Ginn) ; Gage — Physical  Measurements 
(Ginn) ; Stone — Experimental  Physics  (Ginn) ; Chute— Physical  Laboratory  Manual 
(Heath  & Co.) 

*See  Report  of  Committee  of  Ten,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education,  1893. 

See  Report  of  Committee  on  College  Entrance  Requirements,  N.  E.  A.,  July,  1899. 

School  Review.  Vol.  VI.,  Jan.,  1898;  also  Text-Books  under  last  note. 


75 


* % (3)  Uniformly  accelerated  motion;  development  of  formulae; 

and  special  case  of  falling  bodies. 

(4)  Circular  motion. 

* (5)  Simple  harmonic  motion. 

* % (6)  Composition  and  resolution  of  motions.  Graphical 

representation. 

4.  Relation  between  forcey  mass  and  motion, 

(1)  Definition,  names  and  comparison  of  units. 

(2)  Newton’s  Daws  of  Motion. 

f3)  General  relation  between  force,  mass  and  acceleration. 

* ^ (4)  Composition  and  resolution  of  forces..  Graphical  repre- 

sentation. Include  case  of  circular  motion. 

% (5)  Gravitation,  laws  and  cases. 

* io  (6)  Center  of  mass,  gravity  and  inertia. 

* (7)  Kinds  of  equilibrium;  conditions  for. 

* % (8)  Moment  of  a force. 

5,  Work  and  energy. 

* % (1)  Definition  and  illustration  of  work,  energy,  power, 

potential  and  kinetic  energy. 

(2)  Conservation  and  correlation  of  energy. 

% (3)  The  units  of  work,  energy  and  power.  Relations  between 
the  units. 

* % (4)  Simple  machines;  laws  of. 

(5)  The  balance. 

6,  The  pendulum. 

* (1)  Definition  of  simple  and  compound  pendulum. 

% (2)  Daw  of  simple  pendulum  and  its  interpretation. 

* (3)  Application  of  pendulum  to  measure  time,  and  “g”. 

7.  Mechanics  of  fluids. 

* ^ (1)  Laws  of  fluid  pressure  and  application. 

* (2)  Compressibility. 

* ^ (3)  Atmospheric  pressure,  in  pounds,  grams,  dynes  and  cms. 

of  mercury. 

* (4)  Barometers,  mercurial  and  aneroid. 

* ^ (5)  Relation  between  pressure  and  volume  of  gas. 

* (6)  Air  pump  and  air  pump  experiments. 

* (7)  Principle  of  buoyancy. 

^ (8)  Specific  gravity. 

* (9)  Siphon  and  pumps. 

S.  Capillarity  and  surface  tension. 

* (1)  Phenomena  described  and  illustrated. 

% (2)  Value  of  surface  tension  by  rise  in  tubes. 

9.  Elasticity. 

% (1)  Elasticity  of  form  and  of  volume. 

% (2)  Coefficients  of  elasticity. 


76 


* (3)  Elastic  vibrations,  transverse  and  longitudinal. 

* (4)  Waves;  definition  of  terms;  kind  of  motion. 

10,  Sound, 

* (1)  Nature  of  sound;  condition  of  source;  medium  of  trans- 

mission. 

io  (2)  Propagation  of  sound.  Interpretation  of  formulae. 

* (3)  Reflection  and  refraction;  resonance. 

* (4)  Properties  of  sound.  Pitch,  quality,  intensity;  interfer- 

ence and  beats. 

* (5)  Musical  scale  and  chords. 

* (6)  Vibration  of  strings;  of  air  columns. 

* (7)  Method  of  studying  sound  vibrations  graphically,  and 

manometric  flames. 

11,  Heat, 

* (1)  Definition  of  heat;  sources;  effects. 

* % (2)  Temperature  and  instruments  for  measuring  tempera- 
, ture. 

* (3)  Distribution  of  heat;  conduction;  convection;  radiation. 

% (4)  Expansion  and  expansion  coefficients. 

* (5)  Laws  of  change  of  state,  and  modifications. 

* % (6)  Calorimetry;  unit  quantity  of  heat;  specific  heat  and 

latent  heats.  • 

(7)  Thermodynames;  relation  between  units  of  heat  and  of 
work;  the  steam  engine. 

12,  Light, 

(1)  The  ether  and  the  nature  of  radiation.  Classification  of 
ether  waves  and  methods  of  detection. 

% (2)  Velocity  and  intensity  of  light;  Photometry. 

* % (3)  Reflection  and  refraction;  mirrors  and  lenses;  index  of 

refraction;  total  reflection. 

* (4)  Interference;  diffraction;  double  refraction  and  polariza- 

tion. 

* (5)  Dispersion;  spectra  and  spectroscope.  How  used  to 

determine  substances. 

* (6)  Optical  instruments;  microscope,  telescope,  camera  and 

projection  lantern. 

13,  Electrostatics, 

* (1)  Fundamental  phenomena. 

* (2)  Electrification  and  the  electric  field;  conductors  and 

dietectrics. 

* (3)  Electrification  form  of  potential  energy;  how  produced; 

how  detected;  kind. 

(4)  Potential  and  difference  of  potential. 

* (5)  Capacity  and  condensers. 

* (6)  Electro-static  induction.  The  electroscope;  distribution 

of  change. 

* (7)  Electro-phorous  and  electric  machines. 


77 


14,  Current  Electricity . 

* (1)  Fundamental  phenomena  including-  field  of  force  about  a 

magnet. 

* % (2)  Electro-motive  force,  resistance,  conductivity,  strength 

of  current  and  Ohms  law. 

* % (3)  Heating  effect  of  current.  Joule’s  laws. 

* (4)  Galvanometers  and  measuring  instruments. 

* (5)  Voltaic  and  other  primary  cells. 

* (6)  Electrolysis.  Faraday’s  laws. 

* (7)  Thermo-electricity. 

15,  Magnetism  and  Electro-magnetism, 

* (1)  Definition  and  phenomena  of  magnetism. 

* (2)  Force  exerted  between  currents  and  between  a current 

and  a magnet.  Ampere’s  theory  of  magnetism. 

* (3)  Effect  of  magnetic  substance  placed  in  the  magnetic  field 

about  a current. 

* (4)  Electro-magnets  and  applications. 

* (5)  Electro-magnetic  induction;  phenomena  and  laws. 

* (6)  Electro-magnetic  induction;  applications,  including 

induction  coil,  transformer,  motor,  dynamo  and 
telephone. 

III.  lyABORATORY  EXPERIMENTS. 

1,  Preliminary, 

(1)  a.  Measurement  of  a length;  use  of  a rule.  Comparison 
of  English  and  metric  units  of  length. 

b.  Measurement  of  lines  of  a right-triangle— estimate 

to  1-10  mm. 

c.  Measurement  of  diameter  and  circumference  of  a 

circle  and  calculate  value  of  TT 

d.  Determine  the  mass  of  1 cc.  water. 

2.  Mechanics, 

(1)  Laws  of  uniformly  accelerated  motion  (by  ball  rolling 

down  inclined  plane). 

(2)  Density,  by  measurement  and  mass.  English  and  metric. 

(3)  Composition  of  forces.  Three  forces,  not  parallel,  in  the 

same  plane. 

(4)  Composition  of  forces.  Three  parallel  forces  in  the  same 

plane. 

(5)  Composition  of  forces.  Four  forces  at  right  angles  in 

the  same  plane.  Moments. 

(6)  Work— the  inclined  plane.  Coefficient  of  friction. 

(7)  Law  of  simple  pendulum.  Determination  of  “g.’' 

(8)  Laws  of  fluid  pressure. 

(9)  Specific  gravity  of  heavy  solids. 

(10)  Specific  gravity  of  solids  lighter  than  water. 


78 


J. 


4. 


5. 


6. 


(11)  Specific  gravity  of  liquids. 

a.  By  specific  gravity  bottle. 

b.  By  immersed  solid. 

c.  By  balancing  columns.  Hare’s  method. 

(12)  Density  of  air. 

(13)  Boyle’s  law.  Compressibility  of  air. 

(14)  Elasticity  by  stretching. 

(15)  Elasticity  by  bending.  Effect  of  varying  loads  and  of 

varying  dimensions. 

(16)  Elasticity  by  twisting.  Effect  of  varying  loads  and  di- 

mensions of  rod. 

(17)  Surface  tension  by  rise  in  capillary  tubes. 

Sound, 

(1)  Wave  length  of  sound  in  air.  Kundt’s  tube. 

Heat, 

(1)  Testing  a mercury  thermometer. 

(2)  Linear  expansion  of  a solid. 

(3)  Specific  heat  of  a solid — method  of  mixtures. 

(4)  Latent  heat  of  fusion. 

(5)  Determination  of  dew  point. 

(6)  Latent  heat  of  vaporization. 

(7)  Heat  by  mechanical  means. 

Light, 

(1)  Use  of  Rumford  photometer.  . 

(2)  Images  in  plain  mirror. 

(3)  Index  of  refraction  of  glass. 

(4)  Focal  length  of  converging  lens. 

a.  With  parallel  light. 

b.  By  conjugate  foci. 

(5)  Shape  and  size  of  images  formed  by  lens— magnifying 

power. 

a.  Real  image. 

b.  Virtual  image. 

Magnetism  and  Electricity , 

(1)  Study  of  electrifications  and  electric  induction  with 

electroscope. 

(2)  Field  of  force  about  a bar  magnet. 

(3)  Study  of  single  fluid  and  a two  fluid  cell. 

(4)  Study  of  lines  of  force  about  a coil  carrying  a current. 

(5)  Study  of  electro-magnets;  relations  between  directions 

of  current  and  magnetic  field. 

(6)  Resistance  of  wires  by  substitution. 

a.  Single. 

b.  In  series. 

c.  In  multiple. 

(7)  Resistance  by  Wheatstone’s  bridge. 


79 


IV.  EQUIPMENT. 

1.  No  school  should  undertake  to  give  instruction  in 
physics  without  a teacher  well  grounded  in  physical  theory  and 
well  trained  in  experimental  methods,  and  a suitably  equipped  lab- 
oratory. The  successful  instructor  with  the  occasional  aid  of  a 
willing  mechanic,  will  arrange  much  simple  and  inexpensive  ap- 
paratus*, yet  it  is  necessary  to  guard  against  the  waste  of  time 
and  lack  of  results  that  attend  the  use  of  ill-constructed  and  in- 
ferior instruments. 

2.  No  laboratory  equipment  is  complete  without  a work- 
room fitted  with  a vise  and  bench  tools,  a few  wood-working  tools, 
a lathe  and  a supply  of  materials  such  as  sheet  metals,  wire,  rods, 
hard  rubber,  wood,  nails,  screws,  etc.  This  equipment  is  prac- 
tically indispensible. 

3.  In  addition  to  the  references  already  made,  the  teacher 
will  find  the  following  books  full  of  suggestion : 

Gage  : Principles  of  Physics  (Ginn  & Co.) 

Carhart:  University  Physics  (Allyn  & Bacon). 

Watson : A Text-book  of  Physics  (Longmans,  Green  & Co.) 

Daniels:  Principles  of  Physics  (Macmillan) 

Barker : Physics  (Holt) 

Hastings  & Beach : General  Physics  (Ginn  & Co.) 

Ames  : Theory  of  Physics  (American  Book  Co.) 

Stewart:  Heat,  Elementary  Treatise  (Macmillan). 

Thompson:  S.  P.  Elementary  Lessons  in  Electricity  and 
Magnetism  (Macmillan). 

Perkins  : Electricity  and  Magnetism  (Holt  & Co.) 

Frank  F.  Almy. 


* For  sug’g’estions  see : 

Hall  & Berg-en — A Text-book  of  Physics  (Holt) . 
Allen— Laboratory  Physics,  Teachers'  Edition  (Holt). 
Chute — Practical  Physics. 

For  Physical  Apparatus': 

Frankhn  Educational  Co.,  Boston. 

Queen  & Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

E.  S.  Ritchie  & Sons,  Brookline,  Mass. 

A.  L.  Robbins  & Co..  Chicag’o. 

Chicago  Laboratory  Supply  Scale  Co.,  Chicago. 

For  Glass  and  Chemicals : 

Richards  & Co.,  108  Lake  St.,  Chicago. 

E.  H.  Seargent  & Co.,  106T08  Wabash  Ave.,  Chicago. 


Part  III 


The  Committee  urg-es  provision  for  the  subjects  outlined  in  Part 
II  in  the  program  of  studies  of  every  high  school.  The  fundamental 
character  of  the  subjects  there  mentioned  commends  them  as  de- 
sirable for  at  least  a larg-e  portion  of  the  high  school  graduates, 
while  it  is  taken  for  granted  that  such  subjects  as  Mathematics, 
English,  History,  Civics,  Physics  and  Latin  will  be  provided  for  in 
every  curriculum.  The  Committee  adopts  the  method  of  using  the 
term  ‘ ‘ program  of  studies  ’ ’ for  everything  provided  for  in  the  high 
school,  whatever  may  be  the  course;  the  term  “ curriculum”  for  the 
scheme  of  studies  leading  to  graduation  in  any  given  course;  thus, 
Chemistry  might  be  in  the  “program  of  studies”  as  belonging  to 
the  scientific  course,  but  would  not  be  in  the  curriculum  of  the  Class- 
ical or  Latin  course. 

A sufficient  number  of  studies  from  the  following  list  should  be 
placed  in  each  curriculum  to  make  the  full  requirements  of  the  High 
School  course. 

ARITHMETIC. 

As  the  course  is  arranged,  the  pupil  in  the  high  school  comes 
to  his  review  of  Arithmetic  with  a knowledge  gained  from  the 
study  of  the  branch  in  the  grades,  which  should  enable  him  to 
perform  all  the  ordinary  operations  of  any  part  of  the  Arithmetic 
understandingly  and  with  a fair  degree  of  accuracy  and  rapidity. 
His  course  in  the  high  school  has  so  advanced  and  grounded  him 
in  the  use  of  text-books  that  the  method  which  employs  lines, 
blocks  and  other  objective  illustrations  in  teaching  the  subject 
has  no  educational  value  for  him  and  hence  should  not  be  em- 
ployed. He  has  had  in  his  high  school  course  one  year  of  Algebra 
and  in  most  cases  a year  of  Geometry,  which  should  enable  him  to 
reason  clearly  and  to  exercise  his  mind  upon  the  more  difficult 
problems  and  in  abstract  parts  without  distraction.  It  should 
also  be  noted  that  there  are  two  distinct  things  to  be  acquired  by 
the  study  of  Arithmetic,  viz.,  ability  to  perform  the  necessary 
operations  accurately  and  rapidly  and  the  knowledge  of  what 
operations  must  be  performed.  The  former  of  these  can  be 
gained  only  by  persistently  drilling  upon  the  operation  and  re- 
quires little  thought.  The  second  requires  a process  of  reasoning, 
based  upon  definitions  and  principles  and  can  never  be  success- 


81 


fully  learned  by  performing  the  operations  in  arithmetic  nor  by 
solving  the  problems. 

With  these  points  in  view,  we  would  make  the  following  sug- 
gestions: 

1.  The  mastery  of  the  simple  operations  in  integers,  decimals 
and  fractions  can  be  accomplished  by  drills  arranged  for  work 
independent  of  problems.  In  arranging  these  drills  they  should 
be  of  two  classes:  those  where  the  results  are  to  be  given  at  sight 
and  those  in  which  an  analysis  form  is  coupled  with  the  work. 
The  first  class  may  be  employed  in  simple  integers  and  decimals, 
the  least  common  multiple,  simple  reduction  and  operations 
in  fractions,  and  the  direct  or  simple  cases  in  percentage. 

The  second  class  will  cover  drills  in  the  greatest  common 
divisor,  comparison  of  integers  with  fractions,  secondary  steps  in 
percentage  and  evolution. 

To  illustrate:  7 is  ^ of  what?  11  is  | of  what?  etc.  The  form 
should  be:  “7  is  ^ of,  7 ^ or  9>^,  11  is  f of,  11  f or  13^.’’ 

With  such  questions  as  % of  13  is  | of  what?  f of  17  is  ^ of  what? 
etc.,  the  form  of  analysis  should  be:  of  13  is  f of,  % of  13  ^ f 

or  f of  13,  which  is  21%;  f of  17  is  % of,  | of  17  ^ % or  of  17, 
which  is  15i%.” 

It  will  be  observed  that  in  all  such  work  the  fraction  becomes 
a unit  in  the  reasoning  and  is  not  segregated,  as  is  nearly  always 
done.  It  also  makes  use  in  the  analysis  of  the  identical  language 
of  problems  which  the  pupil  will  meet  in  his  subsequent  work. 

From  these  illustrations  concise  forms  can  easily  be  arranged 
for  the  drills  in  percentage. 

2.  A thorough  mastery  of  all  of  the  signs  used  in  arithmetic 
is  essential  to  the  best  cultivation  of  thought  in  the  teaching  of 
arithmetic.  The  drills  in  this  should  be  of  such  a nature  that 
after  completing  the  drills  the  pupil  will  be  able  to  complete  all 
classes  of  indicated  work  with  a certainty  of  having  it  correct. 
He  should  know  the  exact  force  or  meaning  of  each  sign  and  just 
how  far  its  force  extends. 

3.  In  reviewing  the  four  fundamental  operations,  addition,  sub- 
traction, multiplication  and  division  observe  that  subtraction  is  the 
reverse  of  addition,  and  division  the  reverse  of  multiplication,  and 
hence  in  all  of  the  work  in  arithmetic  there  can  be  but  four  classes 
of  elements,  viz:  addends  and  sums  or  products  and  factors.  This 
at  once  circumscribes  the  number  of  possible  operations  in  any  sub- 
ject. Thus  in  percentage  the  work  is  all  based  on  products  and  fac- 
tors, in  mensuration  the  same,  and  in  common  fractions  each  of  the 
four  classes  is  found.  Much  drill  should  be  given  in  simply  determ- 
ining which  class  of  arithmetic  element  each  number,  given  in  the 
problem,  represents.  To  do  this  the  pupil  must  ravel  the  problem 
and  form  his  conclusions  from  the  inter-relations  as  expresed  by 
the  words  of  the  problem. 


82 


4.  Following:  this  last  drill,  and  very  closely  allied  to  it,  is  an- 
other which  aids  very  g:reatly  in  the  development  of  independent 
thought  upon  the  part  of  the  pupil.  All  problems  from  those  in  the 
fundamentals  to  the  most  complicated,  should  be  read  into  state- 
ments giving  the  necessary  operations  for  the  solution.  These 
should  be  in  the  form  of  an  equation  whose  right  hand  number  is 
the  name  of  the  result  and  not  the  result.  These  separate  equations 
will  be  the  successive  steps  necessary  in  the  solution. 

To  illustrate : A man  bought  225  acres  of  land  at  $15  and  sold 

the  whole  of  it  for  $3,125.  How  much  did  he  lose? 

STATE^MKNTS. 

Fifteen  dollars  multiplied  by  two  hundred  and  twenty-five  equals 
the  cost  of  the  land. 

Fifteen  dollars  multiplied  by  two  hundred  twenty-five  minus 
thirty-one  hundred  twenty-five  dollars  equals  the  amount  he  lost. 

THE  SOLUTION. 

$15  X 225  equals  the  cost  of  the  land. 

$15  X 225  equals  $3,125  which  equals  the  amount  he  gained. 

Again,  a man  paid  f of  his  money  for  improvements  upon  his 
house  and  of  it  for  machinery  and  implements.  If  he  still  had 
$960  left,  how  much  had  he  at  first? 

STATEMENTS. 

Two-fifths  plus  one-third  equals  the  part  of  his  money  expended. 
One  minus  the  vinculum  two-fifths  plus  one-third  equals  the  part  of 
his  money  he  has  left. 

Nine  hundred  sixty  dollars  divided  by  the  parenthesis,  one 
minus  the  vinculum  two-fifths  plus  one-third  equals  what  he  had 
at  first. 

SOEUTION. 

I + Yz  equals  the  part  of  his  money  which  he  spent. 

1 — \-\-  Yz  equals  the  part  of  his  money  he  has  left. 

$960  — (1  — I -\-Yz)  equals  the  amount  he  had  at  first. 

It  will  be  seen  that  this  work  in  its  final  statement  shows  the 
numbers  of  the  problem  in  all  their  inter-relations. 

5.  Much  attention  should  be  given  to  the  synthesis  of  problems 
from  indicated  statements. 

To  illustrate : 

1.  $1,150  — ($9  X 150—25)  equals  the  amount  he  lost  on  stock. 

2.  7.5  gal.  X 2 X .7854  x 3 equals  the  number  of  gallons  the  can 
will  hold. 

3.  $205f  f of  4 X ^ of  2 equals  the  value  of  ^ of  2 acres. 

4.  $9600  ^ .40  .60  equals  the  value  of  the  whole  mill. 

PROBLEMS. 

1.  A man  paid  $1150  for  150  head  of  young  stock,  25  of  them 
died  and  he  sold  the  balance  at  $9  per  head.  How  much  did  he 
lose? 

2.  How  many  gallons  will  a can  hold  which  is  2 feet  in  di- 
ameter and  3 feet  deep  ? 


83 


3.  If  I of  4 acres  of  land  be  sold  for  $205f,  at  the  same 
rate,  what  is  the  value  of  U of  2 acres  f 

A man  owning  60%  of  a mill  sold  40%  of  his  share  for  $9600. 
At  the  same  rate  what  is  the  value  of  the  whole  mill? 

Also  form  problems  requiring  simple  given  operations. 
Thus,  1 . Form  a problem  which  in  the  solution  requires  the  square 
root  of  the  sum  of  two  numbers.  2:  One  which  requires  the 
square  root  of  the  sum  of  the  squares  of  two  numbers.  3.  One 
which  requires  the  dividing  by  one  plus  a rate  expressed  decimally. 
4.  One  which  requires  the  multiplying  by  a fraction.  5.  One 
which  requires  the  dividing  of  a number  by  a compound  fraction. 

6.  Arithmetic  is  most  decidedly  a deductive  science  and  as 
such  the  reasoning  is  based  upon  definitions,  axioms  and  princi- 
ples . These  are,  as  it  were,  the  measuring  sticks  by  means  of  which 
the  pupil  is  to  do  his  work,  hence,  to  fail  to  have  him  well  grounded 
in  these  is  to  turn  him  out  a cripple.  Insist  upon  having  definitions 
and  principles  contain  all  that  they  should  contain  and  then  have 
them  committed  verbatim.  Far  more  trouble  arises  from  having 
inductively  lead  up  to  a process  with  no  language  or  with  poor 
language  to  describe  it  than  from  what  is  so  glibly  called  a crowned 
memory.  A definition  in  arithmetic  to  be  complete  should  tell 
not  only  what  a thing  is,  but  also  what  it  is  arithmetically.  This 
last  element  in  the  definition  will  give  its  relation  to  other  things 
with  which  it  must  be  considered. 

7.  Let  all  processes  and  methods  of  operations  be  determined 

by  the  definitions,  the  principles,  and  when  they  are  to  be  applied. 
This  .manner  of  procedure  will  very  materially  change  the  com- 
monly accepted  process.  The  most  practical  application  of  the 
G.  C.  D.  is  in  reducing  fractions  and  for  that  purpose  the  common 
processes  are  of  no  value.  Also  with  the  L.  C.  M.  Involution, 
when  presented  in  the  light  of  the  fact  that  it  is  the  forerunner  of 
the  roots,  will  be  presented  in  processes  which  will  enable  the  pu- 
pil to  reverse  the  order  of  the  processes  and  thereby  master  the 
roots  with  much  greater  ease.  A.  W.  Rich. 


ASTRONOMY. 

In  the  consideration  of  suitable  scientific  branches  for  high 
school  courses  it  is  necessary  to  bear  in  mind  the  limited  equip- 
ment of  the  schools,  and  the  mental  capacity  of  the  students.  The 
study  of  astronomy  is  eminently  adapted  to  the  requirements  of 
the  small  high  school,  as  it  may  be  pursued  with  advantage  with  al- 
most no  outlay  for  apparatus,  and  a very  good  elementary  knowl- 
edge of  the  subject  may  be  acquired  by  the  student  of  average 
ability  at  quite  an  early  age.  Astronomy  is  a subject  which 
appeals  to  the  mind  of  the  young  for  the  reason  that  its  phenom- 
ena are  of  daily  occurrence,  and  force  themselves  upon  the  atten- 


84 


tion  of  even  the  most  casual  observer.  That  astronomy  is 
essentially  a natural  science  study  is  shown  by  its  being  the 
oldest  of  our  sciences,  its  profoundly  mathematical  aspect  being  of 
comparatively  modern  development. 

The  professional  value  of  a study  is  not  the  only  point  to  be 
considered  in  determining  its  fitness  for  the  high  school  curricu- 
lum. On  the  other  hand,  we  have  passed  beyond  the  time  when 
even  the  laboring  man  should  limit  his  knowledge  to  the  “Three 
R’s,”  and  the  high  school  fails  in  its  most  important  duty  when  it 
fails  to  train  its  students  to  observe  the  world  about  them. 

It  is  not  usually  necessary  for  the  teacher  to  awaken  keen  en- 
thusiasm in  the  study  of  astronomy,  as  it  often  is  in  the  case  of 
chemistry,  dr  of  physics,  for  the  average  student  has  from  child- 
hood felt  an  almost  reverential  interest  in  “those  shining  orbs 
that  bespangle  the  dark  robe  of  night. “ Consequently,  astronom- 
ical facts  fall  upon  eagerly  receptive  minds,  and  the  student’s 
powers  of  observation  are  trained  almost  without  his  realizing  that 
he  is  applying  himself  to  a serious  study. 

In  the  teaching  of  this,  or  of  any  other  science,  the  true 
teacher  will  seize  upon  the  opportunities  offered  to  stimulate  the 
inventive  genius  of  his  students,  by  requiring  them,  with  but  little 
assistance,  to  make  simple  apparatus  by  which  they  may  deter- 
mine roughly  many  fundamental  facts — in  this  case  those  that  are 
connected  with  the  local  latitude  and  longitude  of  the  student’s 
home.  The  student  may,  in  effect,  be  asked  this  question  : What 
facts  regarding  your  position  upon  the  earth’s  surface  can  you  de- 
termine by  the  use  of  apparatus  made  by  yourself  ? Let  him  make 
the  apparatus  and  demonstrate  these  facts.  By  such  methods  he 
may  be  trained  not  only  in  the  invention  of  his  own  ways  and 
means  of  research,  but  also  in  the  use  of  simple  tools  and  appli- 
ances. His  interest  will  be  stimulated  by  a brief  historical  study 
of  the  subject,  in  which  special  attention  is  called  to  the  develop- 
ment of  simple  astronomical  apparatus  by  early  workers  in  this 
line.  Some  very  practical  suggestions  for  the  student’s  help  in 
the  arrangement  and  use  of  simple  devices,  and  also  in  locating 
important  lines,  circles  and  directions,  may  be  found  in  David  P. 
Todd’s  “A  New  Astronomy,’’  published  by  the  American  Book  Co. 

The  interest  of  the  average  high  school  student  in  Astronomy 
may  be  greatly  increased  by  the  devotion  of  a number  of  evenings 
to  the  identification  of  some  of  the  prominent  constellations.  For 
this  purpose  he  should  have  access  to  a small  star  atlas,  such  as 
R.  A.  Proctor’s  “Half  Hours  with  the  Stars,’’  published  by  W.  H. 
Allen  & Co.,  13  Waterloo  Place,  London.  We  would  recommend 
that  not  only  evenings  when  there  is  no  moon,  but  also  evenings 
when  there  is  considerable  moonlight  be  chosen  for  this  work,  as 
the  starry  heavens  are  radically  different  in  appearance  at  such 


85 


times.  It  is  not 'necessary  that  the  student  identify  more  than  a 
few  of  the  very  prominent  constellations. 

The  method  of  obtaining  exact  time,  and  the  relations  between 
the  various  kinds  of  time  should  be  carefully  considered.  Atten- 
tion should  be  called  to  the  importance  of  uniform  standards  of 
time  and  to  the  necessities  which  have  led  to  the  division  of  the 
country  into  a few  time  belts.  In  the  study  of  the  planets  the  stu- 
dent should  be  asked  to  locate  by  his  own  observation  all  those 
that  are  visible  during  the  time  that  he  is  engaged  in  astronomi- 
cal study,  it  having  been  explained  to  him  that  the  planets  show 
a steady  and  not  scintillating  light,  that  they  are  close  to  the 
plane  of  the  ecliptic,  and  that  by  careful  observation  their  move- 
ment may  be  noted  in  the  course  of  a few  days.  Attention  should 
be  called  particularly  to  astronomical  units,  stress  being  laid 
upon  the  necessity  of  using  units  in  terms  of  which  all  magnitudes 
may  be  expressed  by  rather  small  numbers,  large  numbers  being 
in  general  quite  meaningless  to  the  student.  Thus  terrestrial 
dimensions  maybe  given  in  miles;  while  the  moon’s  distance  is 
preferably  expressed  in  terms  of  the  earth’s  radius.  The  mean 
distance  of  the  sun  is  a convenient  unit  with  which  to  measure  all 
planetary  distances,  while  “light  years”  are  needed  to  reduce  the 
incomprehensible  stellar  distances  to  our  ordinary  numerical  con- 
ception. 

For  help  in  identifying  constellations,  and  also  for  use  in  the 
classroom,  the  diameter  of  the  moon’s  disc  should  be  kept  in 
mind  as  about  one-half  of  a degree,  while  the  distance  between 
the  “pointers”  of  the  “Dipper”  is  about  five  degrees,  and  one 
side  of  the  great  “Square  of  Pegasus”  about  eleven  degrees.  In 
connection  with  the  latter  constellation  it  may  be  noted  that  the 
east  side  of  this  square  lies  in  the  Equinoctial  Colture,  thus  en- 
abling the  student  to  form  some  definite  conception  of  the  position 
of  the  Vernal  Equinox.  By  means  of  such  facts  as  the  above  the 
student  will  acquire  concrete  ideas  of  the  angular  distance,  sepa- 
rating stellar  bodies,  and  of  the  dimensions  of  figures  upon  the 
celestial  sphere.  Without  these  ideas,  many  of  the  fundamental 
notions  of  the  science  must  be  vague  and  unintelligible  to  the 
student  and  their  statement  a mere  memory  exercise. 

L.  G.  Wkld. 


BUSINESS  TRAINING. 

This  is  a commercial  age  and  the  educators  of  to-day  are  faced 
with  a condition,  not  a theory.  This  condition  demands  that  the 
public  schools  prepare  young  people  for  the  necessity  of  the  hour, 
which  is  a thorough  technical  and  commercial  education.  It  is 
also  true  that  this  is  an  age  of  specialists,  and  the  expert  or  the 


86 


specialist  in  commercial,  professional  and  public  affairs  is  every- 
where in  demand. 

Investigation  has  shown  that  the  thorough  business  and  tech- 
nical training  provided  by  the  public  schools  of  Germany  has  had 
an  intimate  relation  to  her  high  and  enviable  position  in  the 
world’s  commerce.  The  German  government  has  for  many  years 
maintained,  at  public  expense,  free  commercial  high  schools  and 
free  technical  schools,  and  in  spite  of  the  natural  physical  disad- 
vantages of  the  country,  the  German  government  and  the  German 
people  are  to-day  reaping  the  benefits  of  a liberal  education. 

A man  who  is  known  to  the  world  as  a successful  business 
man  and  author  says,  “I  can  with  confidence  recommend  the  busi- 
ness career  as  one  in  which  there  is  abundant  room  for  the  exer- 
cise of  man’s  highest  powers  and  of  every  good  quality  in  human 
nature.  I believe  the  career  of  the  great  merchant  or  banker  or 
captain  of  industry  to  be  favorable  to  the  development  of  the  pow- 
ers of  the  mind  and  to  the  ripening  of  the  judgment  upon  a wide 
range  of  general  subjects,  to  the  freedom  from  prejudice  and  the 
keeping  of  an  open  mind.” 

In  addition  to  the  pecuniary  advantage  to  the  student,  there  is 
a great  public  benefit  which  will  result  from  the  teaching  of  busi- 
ness branches  in  the  public  schools.  If  all  the  accounts  of  the 
public  officials  were  kept  by  competent  bookkeepers  and  the  pub- 
lic officials  themselves  were  familiar  with  business  customs,  there 
would  certainly  be  a great  saving  to  the  taxpayers,  and  the  morals 
of  public  offices  would  rise  several  degrees  in  the  scale.  The  stu- 
dent of  bookkeeping  sees  in  every  transaction  the  nice  balancing 
of  values  in  his  debits  and  credits.  He  learns  in  a practical  way 
that  nothing  of  value  is  acquired  without  an  outlay  of  its  equiva- 
lent in  some  form.  The  mental  training  thus  derived  from  the 
constant  balancing  of  values  received  with  values  given  out  is 
second  to  none  furnished  by  the  public  schools.  So  the  study  of 
bookkeeping  and  business  methods  commends  itself  as  a means 
of  practical,  moral  and  intellectual  training.  Practical,  because 
it  fits  one  for  success  in  business,  professional  and  public  life; 
moral,  because  it  reduces  the  chance  and  temptation  for  profligate 
or  fraudulent  use  of  private  and  public  money.  Intellectual,  be- 
cause it  broadens  and  trains  the  mind  on  a wide  range  of  subjects. 

A business  course  can  scarcely  be  called  such  unless  it  include 
short-hand  and  typewriting.  The  average  business  man  of  to-day 
has  no  time  to  devote  to  the  training  of  stenographers,  book-keepers 
and  other  office  assistants,  and  the  young  man  or  woman  with  a 
knowledge  of  business  forms,  business  transactions,  and  customs 
has  a great  advantage  over  the  one  who  lacks  such  knowledge.  A 
few  years  ago  young  men  were  taken  into  an  office  and  trained  to  do 
the  general  work  of  that  office  and  were  called  office  clerks.  Now  the 
trained  stenographer  has  almost  wholly  superseded  the  office  clerk. 


87 


For  this  reason  the  young  men  and  women  are  leaving  the  public 
schools  early  and  attending  the  business  colleges  in  order  to 
prepare  for  this  work. 

In  the  interest  of  a general  education  I believe  it  is  the  duty  of 
the  public  schools,  wherever  it  is  possible,  to  provide  a course  in 
commercial  geography,  book-keeping,  shorthand  and  typewriting. 
If  general  intelligence  is  the  bulwark  of  our  liberties  and  welfare, 
let  us  throw  out  this  inducement  to  keep  our  young  people  in  the 
public  schools,  where  they  may  attain  a broader,  more  liberal 
education  than  they  now  receive. 

Shorthand  commends  itself  as  a high  school  study  because  of 
the  mind  and  hand  training  that  it  provides.  All  the  principles 
employed  in  this  scientific  art  are  governed  by  definite  rules.  The 
correct  application  of  each  rule  trains  the  mind  to  discern  and  apply 
principles  in  rapid  succession*  This  not  only  develops  judgment, 
but  activity  of  thought  and  executive  volition.  There  is  no  study 
in  the  high  school  course  that  so  constantly  compels  the  correct  use 
of  English  as  does  shorthand  and  typewriting.  Every  transcript  is 
a lesson  in  English,  punctuation  and  spelling.  The  typewriter  is 
probably  the  best  censor  in  the  school  because  it  shows  to  the  pupil 
clearly  and  impartially,  privately  first,  then  in  full  view  of  the  public, 
all  his  little  weaknesses  in  the  use  of  English. 

Dr.  Taylor  says:  “The  three  elements  necessary  to  success  are 

accuracy,  speed  and  comprehensiveness.  The  student  must  learn 
not  only  the  theory,  but  must  be  accurate  in  the  application  of  the 
theory.  But  this  will  be  of  little  practical  use  unless  he  be  able  to 
command  accuracy  with  speed.  A person  who  can  do  a given  amount 
of  work  in  one  day  is  worth  twice  as  much  as  one  who  requires 
two  days  for  the  task,  and  three  times  as  much  as  one  who  requires 
three  days,  etc.  In  this  commercial  age  we  have  learned  to  value 
people  for  what  they  can  accomplish— not  according  to  what  they 
may  know  how  to  do.  By  comprehensiveness  in  this  connection  is 
meant  the  knowing  of  what  each  occasion  demands  or  the  power  to 
grasp  the  situation  and  make  the  most  of  it,  instead  of  doing  each 
individual  thing  as  commanded.  Teach  the  pupil  to  see  things,  and 
to  turn  his  knowledge,  ability  and  tact  to  the  accomplishment  of 
a purpose. 

The  first  matter  of  importance  in  the  teaching  of  kook-keeping 
is  the  selection  of  a good  modern  text-one  that  treats  of  up-to-date 
methods,  gives  due  attention  to  penmanship  and  the  writing  out 
and  filing  of  such  business  and  legal  documents  as  are  called  for  in 
ordinary  business  transactions.  The  saving  of  a few  cents  should 
not  influence  school  authorities  toward  the  selection  of  a text  that 
deals  with  antiquated  methods  and  practices  that  are  never  used 
outside  of  the  school  room. 

1.  Put  into  the  hands  of  the  pupils  a model  daybook  journal  and 
have  them  make  a neat  and  correct  copy  of  it.  Show  them  the 


88 


relations  existing-  between  the  day  book  record  and  the  journal 
entry.  Show  them  that  the  day  book  record  is  a history  of  the 
transaction  and  that  the  journal  entry  is  the  same,  arranged  briefly 
as  debits  and  credits  for  convenience  of  posting. 

2.  Now  show  them  a model  ledger  with  the  same  transactions 
carried  from  the  journal,  i.  e.,  posted  into  accounts.  Teach  them 
the  nature  and  object  of  these  accounts,  and  the  characteristics  of 
the  various  accounts  showing  how  they  are  affected  by  the  business 
transactions.  Trace  the  transactions  from  the  journal  to  the  ledger 
making  the  pupils  understand  how,  when  and  why,  these  accounts 
are  debited  and  credited. 

3.  Have  the  pupils  post  the  transactions  from  their  day  book 
journals  into  their  ledgers  correctly  and  systematically  one  day’s 
transactions  after  another  giving  careful  attention  to  form  and 
penmanship. 

4.  Pencil-foot  the  accounts  in  the  model  ledger  and  list  them,  i. 
e.,  take  a trial  balance,  teaching  the  nature  and  object  of  the  same. 
Then  have  the  pupils  take  a trial  balance  to  prove  the  correcteess  of 
their  work.  See  that  all  this  is  done  in  a neat  and  business  like 
manner.  Have  the  work  written  as  many  times  as  may  be  neces- 
sary to  get  a well  written  copy  devoid  of  errors. 

5.  Now  review  the  work  and  lead  the  pupils  to  see  why  the 
sides  of  a trial  balance  are  equal.  Show  them  that  in  the  journal 
each  debit  has  an  equal  credit  and  that  therefore  the  total  debits 
and  total  credits  in  the  journal  are  equal.  These  debits  and  credits 
being  carried  to  their  respective  sides  in  the  ledger,  that  book  must 
balance.  Therefore,  the  trial  balance  is  used  to  prove  the  correct- 
ness of  the  work. 

6.  Next  have  the  pupils  carry  on  business  transactions,  writing 
out  the  various  papers  necessary  and  using  representative  currency, 
and  cards  to  represent  the  merchandise  bought  and  sold.  When  the 
pupil  has  completed  each  transaction  and  understands  it,  have  him 
make  a neat  record  of  it  in  his  day  book  journal,  making  such  a 
record  as  would  enable  any  one  to  learn  by  reading  it  just  what  the 
transaction  was.  These  transactions  should  be  so  graded  that  each 
one  will  give  the  pupils  a broader  insight  into  the  science  of 
accounts. 

7.  After  a sufficient  number  of  transactions  to  make  a good 
showing  have  been  recorded,  say  thirty  or  forty,  have  the  pupils 
post  them  and  take  a trial  balance. 

8.  Have  them  take  an  inventory  of  stock  on  hand. 

9.  Teach  them  the  nature  and  purpose  of  a balance  sheet,  when 
and  how  to  make  it,  then  have  one  taken  of.  their  work. 

10.  Have  all  accounts  showing  loss  or  gain  closed  and  make  the 
proprietors  account  show  the  net  loss  or  gain  and  present  capital. 

When  the  subject  has  been  taught  in  this  way  the  pupil  will  see 


89 


the  gradual  unfolding  of  the  science,  and  if  the  transactions  have 
been  made  clear  by  the  use  of  business  papers,  such  as  are  used  in 
actual  business  transactions,  the  study  becomes  not  only  profitable,  . 
but  interesting  and  fascinating  to  the  pupil. 

Clay  D.  Slinkkr. 

(Notk: — This  chapter  was  overlooked  until  late,  hence  was  not  subjected  to  the  method 
of  criticism  applied  to  the  others,  and  was  not  read  and  approved  b3^  the  committee  as  a 
whole.  We  suspect  that  members  of  the  committee  might  dissent  from  Mr.  Blinker’s  plea 
for  stenography  in  the  high  school,  though  all  would  approve  his  excellent  practical  sugges- 
tions at  the  close  the  chapter, — Chairman.) 


CHEMISTRY. 

Perhaps  in  no  other  subject  of  the  school  curriculum  is  there 
such  wide  diversity  in  the  nature  and  method  of  the  introductory 
courses  offered  as  in  chemistry.  Leaving  out  of  account  the  in- 
ferior intrinsic  value  of  certain  varieties  of  courses,  the  want  of 
uniformity  is  unfortunate  for  two  reasons.  First: — Almost  any 
school  with  continuity  of  ideal  or  policy  could  soon  accumulate 
the  requisite  laboratory  facilities  for  a good  course,  but  this  is 
hardly  practicable  if  the  nature  of  the  work,  and  therefore,  the 
character  af  the  apparatus  demanded,  is  changed  with  the  incom- 
ing of  every  new  teacher.  Second: — Without  at  least  a fair  degree 
of  uniformity  in  the  courses  in  the  secondary  schools,  the  colleges 
and  universities  cannot  offer  courses  specially  adapted  to  those 
who  have  taken  chemistry  in  the  high  schools. 

This  paper  has  reference  to  only  one  type  of  course  in  element- 
ary chemistry.  It  is  the  sort  ot  course  that  is  approved  and 
taught  by  the  great  majority  of  able  teachers  and  students  of  the 
pedagogy  of  chemistry  and  it  consists,  briefly  stated,  of  recita- 
tions or  lectures  on  general  chemistry,  with  parallel  and  distinctly 
related  laboratory  work. 

Time  Devoted  to  Chemistry.  To  cover  the  ground  of  ele- 
mentary chemistry  as  a science  requires  at  least  a three-hour 
course  extending  throughout  the  year.  A five-hour  course  would 
be  better.  If  so  much  time  cannot  be  given  to  the  subject,  it  would 
be  better  to  confine  the  work  mostly  to  the  so-called  non-metals,  since 
this  will  suffice  for  the  development  of  the  elements  of  the  theory, 
rather  than  to  attempt  to  study  all  the  common  elements  in  detail. 

Proportion  of  Laboratory  Work.  V7ith  a good  equipment 
nearly  or  quite  one-half  of  the  time  should  be  devoted  to  labora- 
tory work.  More  time  can  be  given  to  make  clear  the  significance 
of  the  work  by  individual  instruction  at  the  pupil’s  desk.  All  lab- 
oratory work  without  a clear  idea  of  its  relation  to  chemical  prin- 
ciples is  just  as  bad  as  all  text-book. 

Character  of  Laboratory  Work.  The  chief  value  of  lab- 
oratory work  consists  in  manual  training,  in  the  exercise  of  judg- 
ment in  applying  means  to  ends  and,  most  important  of  all,  in  its 


90 


bearing  upon  scientific  facts  and  principles.  It  is  evident,  there- 
fore, that  good  experiments  should  not  be  too  simple  nor  yet 
beyond  the  powers  of  the  pupil,  and  they  should  bring  out  facts  and 
suggest  principles.  An  experiment  which  brings  to  light  several 
facts  and  has  a direct  bearing  upon  a principle  is  to  be  preferred 
to  one  that  brings  out  only  an  isolated  fact.  A few  experiments  of 
the  first  importance,  done  with  thoroughness  and  care,  are  of 
more  value  than  many  experiments  of  minor  importance,  done 
with  haste  and  carelessly. 

In  general,  the  standard  experiments  relating  to  the  prepara- 
tion and  properties  of  the  non-metallic  elements  and  their  com- 
pounds are  of  more  importance  to  the  beginner  than  precipitating 
compounds  of  the  metals,  blowpiping  or  testing  in  other  ways.  A 
few  simple  quantitative  experiments  should  be  included  in  every 
course,  but  if  too  many  or  too  difficult  they  are  likely  to  produce 
failure  and  discouragement. 

Length  of  Laboeatory  Periods.  The  laboratory  period 
should  be  at  least  twice  the  length  of  a recitation  period.  It  is 
surprising  to  find  that  in  some  of  the  best  high  schools  the  labora- 
tory periods  are  only  forty  minutes  in  length.  In  many  cases  it  is 
almost  absolutely  necessary  that  the  pupil  should  perform  without 
interruption  a group  of  closely  related  experiments  such  as  in  the 
prepartion  and  study  of  the  properties  of  oxygen,  chlorine,  am- 
monia, and  this  cannot  be  done  in  forty  minutes.  Again,  many  of 
the  most  valuable  experiments  in  both  chemistry  and  physics  de- 
mand more  than  that  amount  of  time.  In  a large  high  school  the 
author  recently  asked  the  instructor  how  he  managed  to  have  his 
pupils  do  certain  experiments  within  the  prescribed  period,  and 
the  answer  was,  “We  have  the  apparatus  all  ready  set  up  for  them 
at  the  beginning  of  the  period. “ In  other  words  the  pupil  merely 
pressed  the  button.  Is  that  teaching  science? 

The  Inductive  Method.  It  is  probably  neither  practicable 
nor  desirable  to  carry  out  in  the  strictest  sense  the  inductive 
method  in  teaching  chemistry.  Most  pupils  have  neither  the  abil- 
ity nor  the  time  to  re-discover  the  science  of  chemistry.  The  pres- 
ence of  the  descriptive  text-book  makes  it  impracticable  to  pursue 
a strictly  inductive  plan.  Nevertheless,  the  spirit  of  the  course 
should  be  inductive.  By  this  is  meant  facts  first  and  then  princi- 
ples and  theories  as  the  logical  inferences  from  facts. 

The  laboratory  work  upon  any  topic  should  precede  the  reci- 
tation or  lecture  upon  the  same  topic.  The  experiments 
should  be  discussed  in  the  recitation-room  after  the  laboratory 
work  has  been  done,  and  the  facts  they  teach  should  be  made 
clear.  Other  experiments  should  be  performed  by  the  teacher  and 
their  significance  made  plain.  Around  the  facts  brought  out 
by  the  experiments  should  be  grouped  other  related  facts,  and  then 


91 


principles  and  theories  may  in  the  true  inductive  spirit  be  dis- 
cussed in  the  light  of  these  facts. 

The  Order  of  Study.  Unfortunately  that  part  of  general 
chemistry  offering  most  difficulty,  both  in  the  laboratory  and  in 
the  recitation- room  must  come  near  the  beginning  of  the  course; 
that  is  the  non-metallic  elements,  where  are  met  most  of  the  gase- 
ous elements  and  compounds.  It  is  very  desirable  that  the  ele- 
ments of  theoiy  be  introduced  near  the  beginning  of  the  course, 
and  for  the  consideration  of  theory  a knowledge  of  the  composi- 
tions and  reactions  of  gases  by  volume  is  essential.  For  this 
reason  a good  order  of  study  is,  oxygen,  hydrogen,  chlorine,  bro- 
mine, iodine,  nitrogen  and  their  compounds,  and  air.  A little 
theory  may  then  be  introduced,  after  which  the  non-metallic  ele- 
ments may  be  taken  up,  so  far  as  practicable,  in  groups,  as  they 
occur  in  the  periodic  arrangement.  This  arrangement  is  probably 
not  final,  but  it  is  practically  of  great  advantage  to  study  nearly 
related  elements  together  instead  of  in  the  purely  artificial  order 
as  they  occur  in  the  analytical  groups.  Leaving  out  the  above 
elements  as  already  studied,  perhaps  the  groups  whose  elements 
are  most  important  in  the  study  of  chemical  theory  are  in  order, 
VI,  V,  IV,  III,  I,  II,  VIII,  VII. 

Chemical  Theory.  Chemical  theory  is  difficult,  but  it  may 
be  made  far  easier  for  the  pupil  if  introduced  as  he  is  prepared 
for  it  and  it  is  skillfully  presented.  Only  a knowledge  of  chemical 
facts  can  prepare  the  pupil  for  the  comprehension  of  the  theory. 
The  common  practice  of  the  text-books  in  presenting  a mass  of 
theory  at  the  very  beginning,  including  atomic  and  molecular 
weights,  formulae,  valence  cannot  be  too  strongly  condemned. 
This  is  seemingly  done  in  order  that  reactions  may  be  repre- 
sented by  equations  of  formulae,  which  seems  to  be  the  end  and 
goal  of  chemical  study  in  the  minds  of  some  text-book  writers  and 
teachers. 

The  foundation  of  chemical  theory  as  regards  atoms,  mole- 
cules and  reactions  is  proportion  by  weight  and  by  volume.  The 
logical  procedure  in  the  earlier  part  of  the  course  is,  therefore,  to 
represent  reactions  by  weight,  and  by  volume  if  gases  are  con- 
cerned. The  laws  of  definite  and  multiple  proportions  naturally 
and  even  inevitably  come  to  the  fore,  and  these  lead  naturally 
to  the  ideas  of  atom  and  molecule.  The  ideas  of  atoms  and  mole- 
cules may  be  presented  as  soon  as  oxygen  and  hydrogen  and  their 
compounds  have  been  studied.  After  the  study  of  chlorine,  bro- 
mine, nitrogen  and  their  compounds,  these  ideas  may  be  brought 
up  again  and  enlarged  upon.  At  this  point  proportions  by 
weight  and  by  volume  may  be  translated  into  formulae  and  these 
may  be  used  in  a tentative  way.  About  the  middle  of  the  course 
may  be  introduced,  in  an  elementary  way,  the  determination  of 
atomic  and  molecular  weights,  and  the  calculation  of  formulae. 


92 


In  short,  the  theory  should  be  presented  in  small  amounts  as  the 
pupils  are  ready  for  it,  and  each  time  that  which  has  been  pre- 
viously presented  should  be  reviewed. 

One  of  the  greatest  evils  in  the  teaching  of  elementary  chem- 
istry is  the  misuse  of  formulae  and  equations.  They  are  merely 
the  receptacles  of  truth,  or  forms  of  expressing  truth  inferred 
from  experiments  and  not  means  of  discovering  truth.  The 
teacher  is  often  asked  to  give  rules  for  writing  equations.  Mani- 
festly in  the  very  nature  of  the  case  there  can  be  no  such  rules, 
since  equations  merely  represent  reactions  that  take  place.  With 
a knowledge  of  a part  of  a reaction,  related  reactions  and  valence, 
the  remainder  of  the  reaction  may,  with  much  probability,  be 
inferred,  but  the  result  of  such  inference  is  never  certain  until 
proved  by  experiment. 

Laboratory  Management.  It  is  not  advisable  to  undertake 
the  study  of  chemistry  in  a high  school  without  some  facilities  for 
laboratory  work  by  students.  A beginning  may  be  made  with  a 
few  essentials  and  a prospect  of  increasing  the  equipment.  With 
a consistent  purpose,  care  of  apparatus  and  judicious  small 
expenditures  each  year,  a good  working  equipment  is  soon  accu- 
mulated. 

The  first  requisites  for  good  laboratory  work  are  sufficient 
space  and  desk  room  for  individual  students.  The  apparatus 
should  be  sufficient  in  quality  and  quantity,  every  student  should 
have  his  own  and  should  be  held  responsible  for  it.  There  should 
be  no  such  thing  as  two  students  v/orking  together  upon  the  same 
experiment  at  the  same  time. 

The  chemicals  and  apparatus  absolutely  necessary  to  good  lab- 
oratory work  are  not  expensive.  Fortunately  schools  may  import, 
through  American  dealers,  chemicals  and  apparatus  duty  free  or  at 
prices  only  a little  more  than  half  those  paid  at  home.  Importers 
are  willing  to  handle  orders  of  $100  or  even  less. 

In  purchasing  supplies  two  mistakes  are  very  commonly  made. 
The  first  is  the  purchase  of  a few  expensive  pieces  for  the  teacher  to 
use  before  the  class  instead  of  getting  a large  number  of  simpler 
things  for  the  same  amount  of  money,  suitable  for  the  use  of  stu- 
dents. It  is  not  at  all  uncommon  to  find  in  a high  school  laboratory 
half  a dozen  show  pieces  of  physical  apparatus  which  cost  enough 
money,  had  it  been  judiciously  expended,  to  fit  up  very  fairly  a phys- 
ical laboratory  for  a dozen  pupils  doing  elementary  work.  The 
second  mistake  applies  chiefly  to  chemistry,  and  is  that  of  buying 
chemically  pure  chemicals  for  almost  everything.  Such  chemicals 
cost  as  a rule  three  or  four  times  as  much  as  the  ordinary  commer- 
cial chemicals,  which  in  nine  cases  in  ten'  are  just  as  good  as  the 
chemically  pure.  Another  extravagance  is  the  purchase  of  Bohemian 
glassware  which  costs  twice  as  much  as  the  modern  German  ware 
which  for  most  purposes  is  just  as  good. 


93 


Everything  connected  with  the  laboratory  should  be  reduced  to 
system.  All  chemicals  and  apparatus  needed  in  any  laboratory 
period  should  be  provided  beforehand.  Failure  at  one  or  two 
points  may  throw  the  whole  class  into  confusion.  Work  of  the 
initiated  should  not  be  committed  to  wholly  inexperienced  hands. 
For  example,  hard  glass  tubing  should  be  w^orked  into  the  necessary 
forms  beforehand  by  the  teacher.  Only  the  experienced  can  quickly 
and  surely  bore  cork  stoppers  and  set  up  gas-tight  apparatus  with 
them.  Endless  annoyance  and  failure  are  spared  by  using  rubber 
stoppers,  counting  waste  of  corks,  rubber  stoppers  are  cheaper. 

Shelf  reagents  and  other  solutions  for  students’  use  should 
never  be  made  up  by  guess,  but  by  following  a definite  system  of 
concentrations  that  experience  has  proved  good. 

Laboratory  Teaching.  The  printed  or  written  directions  for 
the  experimental  work  should  be  clear  and  explicit,  and  even  then  it 
is  best  to  supplement  the  directions  and  illustrate  difficult  points  in 
the  work  before  the  pupils  enter  the  laboratory.  The  efficient 
teacher  will  take  such  occasions  to  make  necessary  changes  in  the 
directions,  if  they  are  not  his  own,  to  suit  his  own  environment.  On 
such  occasions  apparatus  at  all  complicated  should  be  set  up  before 
the  class,  and  it  is  well  to  place  it  in  the  laboratory  as  a model. 

While  good  laboratory  work  is  indispensible  in  the  proper  study 
of  chemistry,  it  cannot  be  too  strongly  urged  that  even  a well  se- 
lected course  of  experiments  may  be  so  done  as  to  result  in  little 
more  than  inferior  manual  training.  The  teacher  must  ever  be  on 
the  alert  to  prevent  pupils  from  falling  into  mechanical  and  slovenly 
habits  of  work.  Nothing  but  persistent  questioning  and  suggestion 
will  prevent  the  former,  and  nothing  but  unsparing  criticism  with 
suggestions  having  the  force  of  commands  will  prevent  the  latter. 
The  common  idea  that  any  apparatus  that  “will  work’’  is  good 
enough  should  not  be  tolerated.  The  teacher  should  unhesitatingly 
require  thepupiltoreconstruct  any  piece  of  apparatus  not  properly  set 
up  and  to  readjust  it  until  it  is  right.  An  experiment  performed  with 
only  partial  success  should  be  repeated  until  proper  results  are 
obtained.  It  should  not  be  expected  that  all  experiments  will  be 
successful  the  first  time  they  are  tried  by  inexperienced  hands. 
With  rare  exception  the  teacher  should  resist  the  temptation  to  help 
the  pupil  out  of  a difficulty  with  his  own  hands,  and  should  confine 
his  aid  to  suggestions. 

Note-taking.  The  laboratory  note-book  should  contain  a faith- 
ful record  of  the  student’s  work,  including  a description  of  the 
apparatus,  a statement  of  the  chemicals  used,  conditions,  results 
and  any  inferences  that  may  legitimately  be  drawn.  The  notes 
should  be  written  as  the  experiments  are  performed  and  never 
copied.  Only  those  notes  that  are  original  records  are  of  value. 
Such  note  books  with  their  poor  penmanship  and  stains  made  by 
chemicals  do  not  look  so  well  as  the  elaborated,  faultless  copies 


94 


made  at  home,  but  that  fact  is  not  to  be  considered  when  we 
remember  that  such  copied  notes  lose  their  value  as  records. 

The  teachers  should  beware  of  the  note  books  sold  by.publishers 
and  having-  such  headings  as  “Requirements,”  “Conditions,” 
“Observations,”  Conclusions,”  followed  by  blanks  for  the  student 
to  fill  in.  Do  not  quench  any  spark  of  originality  the  pupil  may 
have  by  any  such  stereotyped  artifices.  The  notes  should  read  as 
records  of  work  done,  and  should  be  in  the  most  accurate  and  con- 
cise language.  They  should  be  self-explanatory  and  not  require 
the  laboratory  hand-book  for  their  interpretation.  Beyond  requiring 
proper  arrangement,  title  of  the  experiment,  paragraphing  and 
placing  numbers  to  be  compared  in  the  same  vertical  column,  the 
individuality  of  the  pupil  may  be  allowed  to  assert  itself.  Outline 
drawings  of  apparatus  should  be  specially  encouraged. 

The:  Te;ache:r.  A man  of  first  rate  ability,  bright,  energetic 
and  resourceful,  may  teach  chemistry  well  in  a high  school  though 
he  has  taken  only  one  full  year  course  in  the  science  in  a college  or 
university,  but  two  or  three  years  of  preparation  are  very  much 
better.  It  is  only  the  exceptional  man  who  can  do  good  work  with 
one  year’s  preparation,  and  one  who  has  had  good  training  in 
related  sciences,  such  as  physics. 

The  author  wishes  to  make  a plea  against  the  over-burdening  of 
the  science  teacher.  To  conduct  the  recitations  in  chemistry  or 
physics,  manage  the  laboratory,  prepare  apparatus  and  chemicals, 
and  do  the  laboratory  teaching  demands  an  amount  of  time  and 
energy  equivalent  to  that  required  by  two  or  three  classes  in  other 
subjects.  Until  this  fact  is  recognized,  work  of  the  same  degree  of 
excellence  as  that  done  in  the  languages  and  mathematics  need  not 
be  expected  in  chemistry  and  physics.  The  conscientious  teacher 
who  is  overburdened  by  classes  in  other  subjects  may  do  his  science 
work  well  for  a time  by  overwork,  but  in  the  majority  of  cases  he 
will  leave  the  profession  for  some  other  occupation  or  perforce  fall 
into  easier  and  inferior  methods  of  conducting  his  science  teaching. 

To  build  up  a good  science  laboratory  it  is  necessary  to  have 
continuity  of  plan  and  purpose,  and  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  say 
that  it  is,  therefore,  very  important  that  a good  science  teacher 
once  secured  should  be  retained  if  possible  through  a series  of 
years. 

Text^and  Re:fkre:nce:  Books.  Most  teachers  prefer  to  use  a 
text-book  and  in  general  this  may  be  advisable,  though  there  are 
those  who  believe  that  the  very  well  prepared  teacher  who  is  some- 
thing of  an  artist  in  his  w'ork  may  do  better  if  free  from  the  restric- 
tions inseparable  from  the  use  of  a text-book.  Anyone  selecting  a 
text-book  for  the  class  room  should  choose  that  one  having  in  the 
greatest  degree  these  characters. 

(1)  The  book:  should  cover  the  ground  of  the  common  elements 
and  chemical  theory  in  an  elementary  way. 


95 


(2)  It  should  have  the  true  inductive  spirit.  By  this  is  meant 
not  only  that  the  pupil  should  be  led  to  draw  inferences  from  his 
laboratory  work,  but  also,  that  the  ground  for  all  fundamental  con- 
ceptions in  chemical  theory  should  be  made  clear. 

(3)  The  laboratory  work  should  be  practicable  and  well  chosen, 
and  the  cuts  to  illustrate  it  should  represent  present  day  forms  of 
apparatus  intead  of  forms  long  since  relegated  to  the  scrap-pile  or  to 
the  museum  of  antiquities. 

(4)  It  should  discuss  general  chemistry  as  a pure  science  and 
for  its  own  sake  and  not  as  a preparation  for  analysis. 

(5)  Formulae  should  have  their  proper  place  as  a means  of 
expressing  ascertained  truth,  and  not  as  an  end  of  study,  or  worse 
yet,  as  means  of  ascertaining  truth. 

Whether  a text-book  is  used  or  not,  the  laboratory  should 
contain  a number  of  text  and  reference  books  for  the  use  of  teacher 
and  pupils. 

Omitting  many  text-books  and  laboratory  manuals  which  may 
be  had  for  the  asking,  the  books  in  the  following  list  will  be  found 
useful: 

Remsen:  Inorganic  Chemistry.  Theoretical  Chemistry. 

Roscoe  and  Schorlemmer : Treatise  on  Chemistry,  Vols.  I. 

and  II. 

Newth:  Text-book  of  Chemistry.  Chemical  Lecture  Experi- 
ments. 

Thorpe:  Essays  on  Historical  Chemistry. 

Ostwald:  Grundlinien  der  Anorganischen  Chemie  (when  trans- 
lated) General  Chemistry.  Solutions. 

E . von  Meyer:  History  of  Chemistry. 

Mendelejeff : Principles  of  Chemistry. 

Richter:  Organic  Chemistry. 

Ramsay:  Gases  of  the  Atmosphere. 

Walker- Dobbin:  Chemical  Theory  for  Beginners. 

Fresenius:  Qualitative  Analysis. 

Lassar-Cohn:  Chemistry  of  Every-day  Life. 

Borchers:  Electro-Smelting  and  Refining. 

Walter  S.  He:ndrixson. 


DRAWING. 

Pupils  entering  the  high  school  are  full  of  restless  activity  and 
their  ideas  about  themselves  and  their  relation  to  society  and  the 
future  are  uncertain.  Too  frequently  the  parents  have  had  no 
definite  plans  for  the  child,  who  rambles  [on  through  the  grades 
and  through  the  high  school  without  the  slightest  idea  what  he  is 
to  do  when  he  is  through. 

The  instruction  of  our  high  schools  then  should  be  necessarily 


96 


broad  and  fundamental.  The  body  as  well  as  the  mind  should  be 
broug-ht  under  subjection  and  suggestions  should  be  given  along 
many  lines  which  tend  toward  full  development. 

If  the  graduate  goes  out  with  mind,  eye  and  hand  trained  he 
is  prepared  to  enter  upon  professional,  scientific,  mechanical  or 
manual  work.  Drawing  then  should  be  regarded  as  a necessity 
in  our  schools,  for  it  develops  thought  and  reasoning  power,  trains 
the  eye  and  hand  and  equips  one  for  life’s  work. 

We  are  all  united  in  opinion  as  to  the  necessity  of  drawing  in 
connection  with  physiology,  zoology,  geology,  geometry,  geography, 
botany,  physics,  history  and  reading.  The  teacher  should  draw  on 
the  blackboard  when  explaining  the  lesson  and  the  pupil  should  illus- 
trate his  note  book  and  written  lessons  making  his  knowledge  more 
accurate  and  expressing  it  unequivocally. 

But  all  this  is  of  minor  importance.  Prof.  Wm.  Jones,  of  Harvard 
says:  “As  much,  if  not  more  can  be  got  from  drawing  in  the  way 

of  general  training  than  from  either  the  languages  or  mathematics. 
In  fact  no  other  single  subject  is  capable  of  training  the  mental 
faculties  to  the  same  extent.’’  Deftness  and  inventiveness  in 
shaping  material  is  a basis  for  all  kinds  of  skillful  work  as  well  as 
all  aesthetic  expression.  Drawing  has  a right  to  an  independent 
existence  and  should  be  recognized  because  of  its  own  power  and 
purpose.  Teach  the  pupil  to  see  truth  and  beauty  and  he  will 
represent  it  according  to  the  cast  of  his  mind,  either  scientifically  or 
artistically.  Help  him  to  realize  that  such  appreciation  is  laudable 
and  the  world  will  have  more  Audubons,  Agassiz,  Longfellows  and 
Bryants.  If  all  cannot  attain  to  greatness  all  can  be  taught  to 
appreciate  it  in  others.  Better  work  will  come  from  the  foundries, 
tin  shops,  planing  mills,  potteries,  woolen  mills,  book  binderies, 
printing  offices,  silver  mills  and  manufactories  in  general  if  drawing 
is  properly  taught  in  the  public  schools  and  of  course  from  the  high 
school  alone  can  we  expect  to  get  practical  results. 

England’s  experience  in  competing  with  France  in  textile  fabrics 
should  be  recalled.  Recognizing  her  artistic  deficiencies  she 
established  a national  school  of  design,  where  artist  artizans  were 
trained  with  little  or  no  improvement  in  the  manufactured  articles. 
It  was  evident  that  the  factories  were  not  being  influenced  and 
in  order  that  they  should  be,  it  was  necessary  to  place  instruction 
within  the  reach  of  all.  Lessons  in  design  were  made  obligatory  in 
the  common  schools  and  trade  improved. 

We,  as  a people  have  been  learning  the  same  lesson.  Only 
through  instruction  in  drawing,  given  in  our  public  schools,  can  we 
expect  to  compete  with  other  nations  in  manufactured  articles.  It 
is  through  the  general  dissemination  of  the  fundamental  art  princi- 
ples that  the  workman  and  the  public  are  trained.  If  we  would  sell 
our  goods  at  home  or  abroad  they  must  be  as  good  as  the  best. 


97 


It  is  necessary  to  make  use  of  our  own  abundant  material  to 
get  the  full  share  of  profit  from  commercial  activities.  The  dec- 
orative designs  of  the  present  should  be  based  largely  on  those  of 
the  past.  In  historical  art  the  spirit  of  the  nation,  not  a fleeting 
idea  of  an  individual,  is  studied.  A unit  of  design  that  has  re- 
ceived the  approbation  of  centuries  is  certainly  worthy  of  our 
respect.  In  addition  to  the  art  culture  received  in  this  Vvay,  his- 
tory itself  becomes  more  impressive  and  a sense  of  comradeship 
exists  for  the  one  who  copies  the  ancient  ornament.  Botany,  too, 
comes  to  the  assistance  of  the  designer,  for  nature,  as  well  as  ge- 
ometry and  art,  is  his  inspiration.  An  excellent  knowledge  of  the 
growth,  habit  and  form  of  a plant  is  necessary  if  its  correct  type 
is  given  by  conventionalization. 

The  application  and  combination  of  color  is  both  attractive 
and  instructive.  As  a people  we  are  very  deficient  in  the  color 
sense  and  should  put  forth  an  effort  towards  its  acquirement. 
Taste  depends  upon  education,  not  heredity.  Satisfactory  work 
can  be  done  in  color  by  the  use  of  choice  papers  prepared  by  the 
educational  companies  for  this  purpose  or  of  colored  pen- 
cils if  their  range  is  great  enough,  but  far  more  preferable  and 
educational  is  the  use  of  water  colors.  With  them  almost  every 
variety  of  hue  and  tone  can  be  obtained  and  much  more  skill  is 
developed  in  their  management.  Closely  connected  with  this  sub- 
ject is  that  of  the  work  of  dravdng.  Both  demand  refined  precis- 
ion, accuracy,  order  and  symmetry.  Beauty  as  well  as  utility 
should  enter  into  the  construction  of  buildings,  machines  and 
furnishings  in  general.  Constructive  drawing  is  of  prime  import- 
ance. It  developes  the  inventive  faculties  and  requires  apprecia- 
tion of  proportion  and  propriety. 

If  drawing  has  been  taught  in  the  grades  and  a knowledge  of 
correct  drawing  and  placing  of  the  views  has  been  obtained  from 
the  type  forms  and  common  objects,  more  elaborate  designs  should 
be  attempted  in  the  high  school.  Objects  should  be  selected  for 
the  exercises  which  possess  beauty  of  form  as  well  as  good  con- 
struction. The  work  might  commence  with  a review  of  the  facts 
of  some  of  the  type  forms,  afterwards  drawing  from  objects  based 
upon  them,  e.  g.:  the  principles  of  the  square  prism  are  the  same 
as  those  of  any  rectangular  object,  as  a table,  bench,  settee,  chair, 
desk,  cupboard,  etc. 

The  pupil  should  himself  take  the  measurements  from  the  ob- 
jects and  give  them  the  top,  front  and  side  views  of  most  of  the 
forms  studied.  A cast  of  the  Doric,  Tuscan  or  Ionic  order  might 
be  used  advantageously,  requiring  the  top  and  front  views.  Orig- 
inal designs  and  plans  of  articles  in  common  use  should  be  re- 
quired. Plans  of  elevations  of  houses  should  also  be  expected. 
Copy  one  or  two,  then  call  for  original  work  such  as  drawing  the 


98 


top,  front  and  side  views  of  the  house  in  which  he  lives  and  its 
several  floor  plans  or  such  diagrams  of  the  school  house  or  other 
public  buildings.  These  views  might  be  combined  in  mechanical 
perspective  exercises  giving  the  appearance  as  well  as  facts  of  the 
models. 

This  subject  is  clearly  and  attractively  presented  by  C.  F.  Ed- 
minister  in  “Architectural  Drawing”  and  L.  W.  Miller  in  “Essen- 
tials of  Perspective.”  Drawing  boards,  T squares  and  triangles, 
rulers,  compass  and  dividers  should  be  in  the  possession  of  each 
pupil.  Water  colors  may  also  be  used  here  if  the  standard  of  the 
school  is  high  enough.  Representation  must  necessarily  occupy 
the  greater  portion  of  time  assigned  to  drawing  and  in  presenting 
it  great  pains  should  be  taken  to  insist  that  appearance,  not  fact, 
is  wanted.  Art  is  not  a mirror* like  reproduction  of  nature,  but  is 
what  an  intellectual  being  sees  or  desires  to  see  in  certain  moods. 
He  may  be  interested  in  the  dawn  or  evening  with  results  in  the 
manner  of  Corot  or  Guido  Remi.  His  sympathies  may  be  enlisted 
with  the  poor  and  suffering  as  were  Millet’s  and  Muncaczy’s.  He 
may  see  the  faithfulness  and  devotion  of  the  brute  and  present 
them  as  did  Rosa  Bonheur  and  Landseer,  or  he  may  see  beauty  in 
the  human  form  and  express  it  as  did  Praxitiles  and  Michael 
Angelo. 

Realizing  that  the  pupil  of  the  high  school  is  of  the  most  im- 
pressible age,  that  the  after  course  of  his  life  is  usually  deter- 
mined there,  it  should  be  one  of  the  first  aims  of  the  public  school 
to  instil  an  appreciation  of  art.  The  silent  forces  are  often  the 
most  potent.  Good  prints  of  the  best  architecture,  designs,  stat- 
ues and  paintings  should  be  held  essential  in  school  room  furnish- 
ing, especially  where  the  community  is  barren  of  such  adornments. 

Art  gives  more  inspiration  and  encouragement  than  nature, 
for  in  the  midst  of  the  grandeur  and  beauty  of  the  latter  the  ama* 
teur  is  confused  and  overwhelmed,  but  the  former  gives 
encouragement,  a feeling  of  emulation  and  enables  him  to  acquire 
the  grammar  of  art. 

We  add  the  following  miscellaneous  suggestions : 

Much  can  be  accomplished  in  the  study  of  composition  under 
the  influence  of  the  Perry  pictures  so  comimon  in  cur  day. 

Arthur  W.  Dow  has  given  most  valuable  assistance  in  his  book 
on  this  subject.  “How  to  Enjoy  Pictures”  should  be  in  every 
school  library.  It  should  be  remembered  that  forms  are  made  vis- 
ible by  light  and  shade  alone;  consequently  in  representing  them, 
not  outline  but  light  and  shade  should  appear. 

Good  spirited  work  should  be  done  in  water  colors  from  life 
and  still  life  as  well  as  in  design.  Every  effort  should  be  made  to 
develop  the  color  sense. 


99 


Drawing"  from  memory  and  imagination  can  be  profitably  pur- 
sued in  the  high  school. 

The  most  lasting  impressions  and  the  most  artistic  results  are 
to  be  obtained  in  this  way. 

The  medium  used  is  of  slight  importance, ^whether  brush,  pen- 
cil, charcoal  or  pen. 

The  result  depends  upon  mental  perception.  When  we  realize 
that  drawing  is  a mental  process  and  not  an  inborn  talent, 
then,  and  not  until  then,  can  we  expect  to  have  gcod  work  in  our 
schools. 


FRENCH. 

I.  ELEMENTARY  COURSE. 

1.  The  Aim  of  the  Instruction.  At  the  end  of  the  element- 
ary course  the  pupil  should  be  able  to  pronounce  French  accurately, 
to  read  at  sight  easy  French  prose,  to  put  into  French  simple 
English  sentences  taken  from  the  language  of  every-day  life,  or 
based  upon  a portion  of  the  French  text  read,  and  to  answer  ques- 
tions on  the  rudiments  of  the  grammar  as  defined  below. 

2.  The  Work  to  be  Done.  During  the  first  year  the  work 
should  comprise  (a)  careful  drill  in  pronunciation:  (b)  the  rudi- 
ments of  grammar,  including  the  inflection  of  the  regular  and  the 
more  common  irregular  verbs,  the  plural  of  nouns,  the  inflection 
of  adjectives,  participles  and  pronouns;  the  use  of  personal  pro- 
nouns, common  adverbs,  prepositions,  and  conjunctions;  the 
order  of  words  in  the  sentence,  and  the  elementary  rules  of  syn- 
tax; (c)  abundant  easy  exercises,  designed  not  only  to  fix  in  the 
memory  the  forms  and  principles  of  grammar,  but  also  to  culti- 
vate readiness  in  the  reproduction  of  natural  forms  of  expression; 
(d)  the  reading  of  from  100  to  175  duodecimo  pages  of  graduated 
texts,  with  constant  practice  in  translating  into  French  easy  vari- 
ations of  the  sentences  read,  the  teacher  giving  the  English,  and 
in  reproducing  from  memory  sentences  previously  read;  (e)  writ- 
ing French  from  dictation. 

During  the  second  year  the  work  should  comprise:  (a)  the 
reading  of  from  250  to  400  pages  of  easy  modern  prose  in  the  form 
of  stories,  plays,  or  historical  or  biographical  sketches;  (b)  con- 
tinued practice  in  translating  into  French  easy  variations  upon 
the  texts  read;  (c)  frequent  abstracts,  sometimes  oral  and  some- 
times written,  of  portions  of  the  text  already  read;  (d)  writing 
French  from  dictation;  (e)  continued  drill  upon  the  rudiments  of 
grammar,  with  constant  application  in  the  construction  of  sen- 
tences; (f)  mastery  of  the  forms  and  use  of  pronouns,  pronominal 
adjectives,  of  all  but  the  rare  irregular  verb  forms,  and  of  the 
simpler  uses  of  the  conditional  and  subjunctive. 


100 


When  only  one  year’s  work  in  Frencn  is  attempted,  at  the 
close  of  the  secondary  course,  the  total  amount  of  reading  indi- 
cated above  must  be  reduced  by  about  one- fourth. 

Suitable  texts  for  elementary  reading  are  About’s  Le  Roi  des 
montagnes;  Brunot’s  Le  tour  de  la  France;  Daudet’s  easier  short 
tales;  De  la  Bedolliere’s  La  Mere  Michel  et  son  chat;  Krck- 
madn-Chatrian’s  stories;  Froa’s  Contes  biographiques  and  Le 
petit  Robinson  de  Paris;  Foncin’s  Le  pays  de  France;  Labiche 
and  Martin’s  La  poudre  aux  yeux  and  Le  voyage  de  M.  Perrichon; 
Legouve  and  Labiche’s  La  cigale  chez  les  fourmis;  Malot’s  Sans 
famine;  Mairet’s  La  tache  du  petit  Pierre;  Merimee’s  Colomba; 
extracts  from  Michelet;  Sarcey’s  Le  siege  de  Paris;  Verne’s 
stories. 

3.  Suggestions  to  the  Teacher.  The  suggestions  oifered 
below  upon  the  teaching  of  elementary  German  are,  in  the  main, 
equally  applicable  to  the  teaching  of  elementary  French.  While 
each  language  has  its  own  peculiar  difficulties  that  require  special 
attention  from  the  teacher,  the  general  principles  that  should  reg- 
ulate the  work  are  the  same  for  both.  Only  a few  supplementary 
observations  need  be  added  here. 

The  educational  value  of  the  study  of  French  in  cultivating 
habits  of  careful  discrimination,  of  mental  alertness,  of  clear 
statement,  must  never  be  lost  from  view,  and  the  expediency  of  an 
exercise  must  often  be  determined  by  its  utility  in  attaining  these 
ends.  With  regard  to  drill  in  grammar,  it  is  not  for  the  secondary 
school  to  spend  time  over  the  many  pages  of  exceptions,  peculiar- 
ities in  gender  and  number,  idioms  that  one  rarely  sees  and  never 
thinks  of  using,  and  grammatical  puzzles  for  which  each  learned 
grammarian  has  a different  solution,  that  form  so  large  a part  of 
some  grammars.  The  great  universals,  however,  (the  regular  and 
the  common  irregular  verbs;  negative  and  interrogative  varia- 
tions; the  common  use  and  meaning  of  moods  and  tenses;  the 
personal  pronouns  and  their  position;  the  general  principles  gov- 
erning the  agreement  of  adjectives,  pronouns  and  participles;  the 
partitive  ‘[constructions;  the  possessives,  demonstratives,  inter- 
rogatives,  and  relatives;  the  most  common  adverbs,  conjunctions, 
and  prepositions),  should  all  be  thoroughly  understood  by  the  end 
of  the  elementary  course,  and  subsequent  study  should  give  con- 
siderable facility  in  using  them. 

The  verb  seems  most  formidable;  but  when  it  is  perceived  that 
most  forms  of  all  verbs  may  be  treated  as  identically  derived  from 
the  “primitive  tenses,’’  the  difficulties  appear  less  numerous,  and 
when  the  principle  of  stem  differentiation  under  the  influence  of 
tonic  accent,  persisting  in  the  older  and  more  common  verbs,  is  a 
little  understood,  the  number  of  really  unique  forms  is  inconsid- 
erable. 


101 


No  attempt  should  be  made  to  teach  literature  until  the  pupil 
is  quite  familiar  with  ordinary  prose  and  can  read  page  after  page 
of  the  text  assigned  with  no  great  need  of  grammar  and  diction- 
ary. The  classics  of  dramatic  literature  may  very  properly  be 
postponed  until  the  fourth  year,  and  are  not  always  desirable  even 
then;  but  a few  are  given  below  among  texts  suitable  for  the  inter- 
mediate course  in  the  hope  that  these,  rather  than  others,  will  be 
selected  by  teachers  who,  for  reasons  of  their  own,  choose  to  read 
something  of  the  kind  at  this  stage  of  the  course. 

II.  INTERMEDIATE  COURSE. 

1.  The  Aim  of  the  Instruction.  At  the  end  of  the  interme- 
diate course  the  pupil  should  be  able  to  read  at  sight  ordinary 
French  prose  or  simple  poetry,  to  translate  into  French  a con- 
nected passage  of  English  based  on  the  text  read,  and  to  answer 
questions  involving  a more  thorough  knowledge  of  syntax  than  is 
expected  in  the  elementary  course. 

2.  The  Work  to  be  Done.  This  should  comprise  the  addi- 
tional reading  of  from  400  to  600  pages  of  French  of  ordinary 
difficulty,  a portion  to  be  in  the  dramatic  form;  constant  practice 
in  giving  French  paraphrases,  abstracts,  or  reproductions  from 
memory  of  selected  portions  of  the  matter  read;  the  study  of  a 
grammar  of  moderate  completeness;  writing  from  dictation. 

This  represents  the  amount  of  work  contemplated  in  the  two 
years’  preparatory  course  adopted  by  the  College  Department  of 
the  Iowa  State  Teachers’  Association. 

Suitable  texts  are:  About’s  stories;  Augier  and  Sandeau’s  Le 
Gendre  de  M.  Poirier;  Beranger’s  poems;  Corneille’s  Le  Cid  and 
Horace;  Coppee’s  poems;  Daudet’s  La  Belle  Nivernaise;  La 
Brete’s  Mon  oncle  et  mon  cure;  Mme.  de  Sevigne’s  letters;  Hugo’s 
Hernani  and  La  Chute;  Labiche’s  plays;  Loti’s  Pecheur  d’Islande; 
Mignet’s  historical  writings;  Moliere’s  L’Avare  and  a Le  Bour- 
geois Gentil’homme;  Racine’s  Athalie,  Andromaque,  and  Esther; 
George  Sand’s  plays  and  stories;  Sandeau’s  Mile,  de  la  Seigliere; 
Scribe’s  plays;  Thierry’s  Recits  des  temps  merovingiens;  Thier’s 
L’Expedition  de  Bonaparte  en  Egypte;  Vigny’s  La  canne  de  jonc; 
Voltaire’s  historical  writings. 

III.  ADVANCED  COURSE. 

1.  The  Aim  of  the  Instruction.  At  the  end  of  the  advanced 
course  the  pupil  should  be  able  to  read  at  sight,  with  the  help  of 
vocabulary  of  special  or  technical  expressions,  difficult  French  not 
earlier  than  that  of  the  seventeenth  century;  to  write  in  French  a 
short  essay  on  some  simple  subject  connected  with  the  works  read; 
to  put  into  French  a passage  of  easy  English  prose,  and  to  carry 
on  a simple  conversation  in  French. 

2.  The  Work  to  be  Done.  This  should  comprise  the  addi- 


102 


tional  reading  of  from  600  to  1,000  pages  of  standard  French, 
classical  and  modern,  only  difficult  passages  being  explained  in 
the  class;  the  writing  of  numerous  short  themes  in  French;  the 
study  of  syntax. 

Suitable  reading  matter  will  be:  Beaumarchais’s  Barbier  de 

Seville;  Corneille’s  dramas;  the  elder  Dumas’s  prose  writings; 
the  younger  Dumas's  La  question  d’argent;  Hugo’s  Ruy  Bias, 
lyrics,  and  prose  writings;  La  Fontaine’s  fables;  Lamartine’s 
Graziella;  Marivaux’s  plays;  Moliere’s  plays;  Musset’s  plays  and 
poems;  Pellissier’s  Le  Mouvement  litteraire  au  xix  siecle;  Renan’s 
Souvenirs  d’enfance  et  de  jeunnesse;  Rousseau’s  writings;  Sainte- 
Beuve’s  essays;  Taine’s  Origines  de  la  France  contemporaine; 
Voltaire’s  writings;  selections  from  Zola,  Maupassant,  and  Balzac. 

John  S.  Nollen, 
Francis  A.  Wood. 


GERMAN. 

I.  ELEMENTARY  COURSE. 

1.  The  Aim  of  the  Instruction. 

At  the  end  of  the  elementary  course  the  pupil  should  be  able 
to  read  at  sight,  and  to  translate,  if  called  upon,  a passage  of 
very  easy  dialogue,  or  narrative  prose,  help  being  given  upon 
unusual  words  and  constructions;  to  put  into  German  short  Eng- 
lish sentences  taken  from  the  language  of  every-day  life  or  based 
upon  the  text  given  for  translation,  and  to  answer  questions  upon 
the  rudiments  of  the  grammar  as  defined  below. 

2.  The  Work  to  be  Done. 

During  the  first  year  the  work  should  comprise:  (a)  Careful 

drill  upon  pronunciation;  (b)  the  memorizing  and  frequent  repeti- 
tion of  easy  colloquial  sentences;  (c)  drill  upon  the  rudiments  of 
grammar,  that  is,  upon  the  inflection  of  the  articles,  of  such  nouns 
as  belong  to  the  language  of  everyday  life,  of  adjectives,  pronouns, 
weak  verbs,  and  the  more  usual  strong  verbs,  also  upon  the  use  of 
the  more  common  prepositions,  the  simpler  uses  of  the  modal  aux- 
iliaries, and  the  elementary  rules  of  syntax  and  the  word  order;  (d) 
abundant  easy  exercises  designed  not  only  to  fix  in  mind  the  forms 
and  principles  of  grammar,  but  also  to  cultivate  readiness  in  the  re- 
production of  natural  forms  of  expression;  (e)  the  reading  of  from 
75  to  100  pages  of  graduated  texts  from  a reader,  or  in  the  form  of 
simple  stories,  with  constant  practice  in  translating  into  German 
easy  variations  upon  sentences  selected  from  the  reading  lesson 
(the  teacher  giving  the  English),  and  in  the  reproduction  from  mem- 
ory of  sentences  previously  read. 

During  the  second  year  the  work  should  comprise:  (a)  The 


103 


reading-  of  from  150  to  200  pages  of  literature  in  the  form  of  easy 
stories  and  plays;  (b)  accompanying  practice,  as  before,  in  the 
translation  into  German  of  easy  variations  upon  the  matter  read, 
and  also  in  the  off-hand  reproduction,  sometimes  orally  and  some- 
times in  writing,  of  the  substance  of  short  and  easy  selected  pas- 
sages; (c)  continued  drill  upon  the  rudiments  of  the  grammar, 
directed  to  the  ends  of  enabling  the  pupil,  first,  to  use  his  knowledge 
with  facility  in  the  formation  of  sentences,  and,  secondly,  to  state 
his  knowledge  correctly  in  the  technical  language  of  the  grammar. 
3.  Suggestions  to  the  Teacher. 

Stories  suitable  for  the  elementary  course  can  be  selected  from 
the  following  list  (arranged  alphabetically) : Anderson’s  Maerchen 

and  Bilderbuch  ohne  Bilder;  Arnold’s  Fritz  auf  Ferien;  Baumbach’s 
Maerchen,  Die  Nonna,  and  Der  Schwiegersohn  Gerstaecker’s  Germel- 
shausen,  Heyse’s  L’Arrabbiata,  Das  Maedchen  von  Treppi,  and 
Anfang  und  Ende;  Hillern’s  Hoeher  als  die  Kirche;  Jensen’s  Die 
braune  Erica;  Eeander’s  Traumereien  and  Kleine  Gerschichten; 
Seidel’s  Maerchen;  Stokl’sUnter  dem  Christbaum;  Storm’s  Immensee 
and  Geschichten  aus  der  Tonne;  Zschokke’s  Der  zerbrochene  Krug. 

Good  plays  adapted  to  the  elementary  course  are  much  harder  to 
find  than  good^stories.  Five  act  plays  are  too  long.  Among  shorter 
plays  the  best  available  are  perhaps:  Benedix’s  Der  Prozess,  Der 

Weiberfeind  and  Guenstige  Vorzeichen;  Elz’s  Er  ist  nicht  eifer- 
suechtig;  Wichert’s  An  der  Majorsecke;  Wilhelmi’s  Einer  muss 
heiraten.  It  is  recommended,  however,  that  not  more  than  one  of 
these  plays  be  read.  The  narrative  style  should  predominate. 

Translation  from  German  into  English  should  be  idiomatic,  not 
literal.  The  pupil  should  be  constantly  reminded  that  he  is  trans- 
ferring, from  one  language  to  another,  ideas  not  words.  But  from 
the  outset  it  should  not  be  forgotten  that  the  principal  object  of 
study  is  not  to  learn  to  translate,  but  to  learn  to  read  understand- 
ingly  without  translating.  This  end  can  best  be  accomplished  by 
beginning  with  some  very  easy  text  in  connection  with  the  grammar. 
And,  as  a rule,  a class  should  never  be  put  into  a text,  the  substance 
of  which  it  cannot  understand  at  sight. 

Reproductive  Transeation  into  German.  The  program  of  work 
provides  for  practice  “in  the  off-hand  reproduction,  sometimes  orally 
and  sometimes  in  writing,  of  the  substance  of  short  and  easy  selected 
passages.”  This  is  what  the  Germans  call  “ freie  reproduktion,” 
and  is  one  of  the  most  profitable  exercises  possible.  It  teaches  the 
pupil  to  give  heed  not  only  to  the  meaning,  but  to  the  form  in  which 
it  is  expressed,  to  put  thoughts  in  German  with  German  as  a starting 
point.  The  language  of  the  original  should,  of  course,  not  be  mem- 
orized verbatim;  what  is  wanted  is  not  an  effort  of  the  memory,  but 
an  attempt  to  express  thought  in  German  forms  that  are  remem- 
bered only  in  a general  way.  The  objection  to  independent  transla- 
tion from  English  into  German  is  that  for  a long  time  it  is  necessarily 


104 


mechanical.  The  translator  has  no  help  except  his  grammar 
and  dictionary,  and  his  translation  is  mere  upsetting.  In  free  repro- 
duction, on  the  contrary,  he  instinctively  starts  from  his  memory  of 
the  original.  His  thoughts  tend  to  shape  themselves  in  German 
form.  In  short,  he  learns  to  think  in  German. 

II.  INTERMEDIATE  COURSE. 

1.  The  Aim  of  the  Instruction.  At  the  end  of  the  interme- 
diate course  the  pupil  should  be  able  to  read  at  sight  German 
prose  of  ordinary  difficulty,  whether  recent  or  classical;  to  put 
into  German  a connected  passage  of  simple  English,  paraphrased 
from  a given  text  in  German;  to  answer  any  grammatical  ques- 
tions relating  to  usual  forms  and  essential  principles  of  the  lan- 
guage, including  syntax  and  word  formation,  and  to  translate  and 
explain  (so  far  as  explanation  may  be  necessary)  a passage  of 
classical  literature  taken  from  some  text  previously  studied. 

2.  The  Work  to  be  Done.  The  work  should  comprize,  in 
addition  to  the  elementary  course,  the  reading  of  about  400  pages 
of  moderately  difficult  prose  and  poetry,  with  constant  practice  in 
giving,  sometimes  orally  and  sometimes  in  writing,  paraphrases, 
abstracts,  or  reproductions  from  memory  of  selected  portions  of 
the  matter  read;  also  grammatical  drill  upon  the  less  usual  strong 
verbs,  the  use  of  articles,  cases,  auxiliaries  of  all  kinds,  tenses 
and  modes  (with  special  reference  to  the  infinitive  and  subjunc- 
tive), and  likewise  upon  word  order  and  word  formation. 

This  represents  the  work  of  the  second  year  in  the  two  years* 
course  adopted  by  the  College  Department  of  the  Iowa  State 
Teachers'  Association. 

3.  Suggestions  to  the  Teacher.  Suitable  reading  matter 
can  be  selected  from  such  works  as  the  following:  Ebner-Eschen- 
bach’s  Die  Freiherren  von  Gemperlein;  Freytag's  Die  Journalis- 
ten  and  Bilder  aus  der  deutschen  Vergangenheit  (e.  g.,  Karl  der 
Grosse,  Aus  den  Kreuzzuegen,  Doktor  Luther,  Aus  dem  Staat 
Friedrichs  des  Grossen);  Fououe's  Undine;  Gerstaecker's  Irrfahr- 
ten;  Goethe’s  Hermann  und  Dorothea  and  Iphigenie;  Heine’s 
poems  and  Reisebilder;  Hoffmann’s  Historische  Erzaehlungen;  Les- 
sing’s Minna  von  Barnhelm;  Meyer’s  Gustav  Adolfs  Page;  Moser’s 
Der  Bibliothekar;  Riehl’s  Novellen  (e.  g..  Burg  Neideck,  Der- 
Fluch  der  Schoenheit,  Der  stumme  Ratsherr,  Das  Spielmannskind); 
Rosegger’s  Waldheimat;  Schiller’s  Der  Neffe  als  Onkel,  Der 
Geisterseher,  Wilhelm  Tell,  Die  Jungfrau  von  Orleans,  Das  Lied 
von  der  Glocke,  Balladen;  Scheffel’s  Der  Trompeter  von  Saek- 
kingen;  Uhland’s  poems;  Wildenbruch’s  Das  edle  Blut. 

The  general  principles  of  teaching  set  forth  in  the  preceding 
section  apply  also  to  the  work  of  the  intermediate  course.  Trans- 
lation should  be  insisted  upon  so  far  as  necessary,  but  the  aim 
should  be  to  dispense  with  it  more  and  more.  Every  expedient 


105 


should  be  employed  which  will  teach  the  scholar  to  comprehend 
and  feel  the  original  directly,  without  the  intervention  of  English* 
Occasional  exercises  in  preparing  very  careful  written  translations 
should  be  continued.  Practice  should  be  given  in  reading  at 
sight  from  authors  of  moderate  difficulty,  such  as  Riehl  or  Frey- 
tag.  The  “free  reproduction”  should  by  all  means  be  kept  up. 
It  will  be  found  much  more  valuable  at  this  stage  than  independ- 
ent translation  from  English  into  German.  In  dealing  with 
classical  literature,  thorough  literary  studies  are,  of  course,  not 
to  be  expected,  but  an  effort  should  be  made  to  bring  home  to  the 
learner  the  characteristic  literary  qualities  of  the  text  studied, 
and  to  give  him  a correct  general  idea  of  the  author.  In  the  case 
of  the  drama,  at  least,  some  study  of  structural  technique  will 
often  add  interest  to  the  work.  The  teacher  will  find  Freytag, 
Technik  des  Dramas,  or  Franz,  Aufbau  der  Handlung  in  den  klas- 
sischen  Dramen  (Velhagen  und  Klasing,  1892).,  good  guides  in  this 
study. 

III.  ADVANCED  COURSE. 

1.  The  Aim  of  the  Instruction.  At  the  end  of  the  advanced 
course  the  student  should  be  able  to  read,  after  brief  inspection, 
any  German  literature  of  the  last  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  that 
is  free  from  unusual  textual  difficulties,  to  answer  in  German 
questions  on  the  lives  and  works  of  the  great  writers  studied,  and 
to  write  in  German  a short,  independent  theme  upon  some 
assigned  topic. 

2.  The  Work  to  be  Done.  The  work  of  the  advanced  course 
(last  y^ar)  should  comprise  the  reading  of  about  500  pages  of  good 
literature  in  prose  and  verse,  reference  reading  upon  the  lives  and 
works  of  the  great  writers  studied,  the  writing  in  German  of 
numerous  short  themes  upon  assigned  subjects,  independent 
translation  of -English  into  German. 

3.  Suggestions  to  the  Teacher.  Suitable  reading  matter 
for  the  last  year  will  be:  Freytag’s  Soli  und  Haben;  Fulda’s  Der 
Talisman;  Goethe’s  dramas  (except  Faust);  Goethe’s  prose  writ- 
ings (say  extracts  from  Werther  and  Dichtung  und  Wahrheit); 
Grillparzer’s  Ahnfrau,  Sappho,  or  Der  Traum  ein  Leben;  Hauff’s 
Lichtenstein;  Heine’s  more  difficult  prose  (e.  g.,  Ueber  Deutsch- 
land); Kleist’s  Prinz  von  Homburg;  Koerner’s  Zriny;  Lessing’s 
Emilia  Galotti  and  prose  writings  (say  extracts  from  the  Ham- 
burgische  Dramaturgie  or  Laokoon);  Scheffel’s  Ekkehard;  Schil- 
ler’s Wallenstein,  Maria  Stuart;  Braut  von  Messina,  and  historical 
prose  (say  the  third  book  of  the  Gesctiichte  des  dreissigjaehrigen 
Krieges);  Sudermann’s  Johannes.  Tieck’s  Genoveva;  Wilden- 
bruch’s  Heinrich. 

A good  selection  from  this  list  would  be  (1)  A recent  novel, 
such  as  Ekkehard  or  Soli  und  Haben,  read  in  extracts  sufficient  to 


106 


give  a good  idea  of  the  plot,  the  style,  and  the  characters;  (2) 
Egmont  or  Goetz  von  Berlichingen;  (3)  some  of  Goethe’s  prose, 
say  the  Sesenheim  episode  from  Dichtnng  mid  Wahrheit;  (4)  Wal- 
lenstein’s Lager  and  Wallenstein’s  Tod,  with  the  third  book  of  the 
Thirty  Years’  War;  (5)  Emilia  Galotti;  (6)  a romantic  drama,  such 
as  Genoveva  or  Der  Prinz  von  Homburg.  It  is  assumed  that  by 
the  time  the  fourth  year  is  reached,  translation  in  class  can  be 
largely  dispensed  with  and  the  works  read  somewhat  rapidly. 
Of  course,  they  cannot  be  thoroughly  studied,  but  thorough  liter- 
ary study  belongs  to  the  college  or  the  university.  It  is  not  sound 
doctrine  for  the  secondary  school  that  one  work  studied  with  the 
painstaking  thoroughness  of  the  professional  scholar  is  worth 
half  a dozen  read  rapidly.  In  the  secondary  school  the  aim  should 
be  to  learn  to  read  easily,  rapidly,  and  yet  with  intelligent  general 
appreciation,  somewhat  as  an  ordinary  educated  American  reads 
Shakespeare.  John  S.  Nollen, 

Francis  A.  Wood. 


GREEK. 

I.  PRKI.IMINARY  STATKMEJNT. 

The  common  arrangement  of  high  school  courses  under  present 
day  conditions  proposes,  as  most  conductive  to  the  attainment  of 
all  the  various  ends  in  view,  Latin  as  a central  language  study,  to 
be  continued  throughout  the  four  years.  As  contributory  to  the 
aims  of  high  school  training,  it  is  also  proposed  to  offer  for  the  last 
two  years  of  the  course  as  an  optional  stud5’^  a second  foreign 
language.  This  language  may  be  Greek,  German  or  French.  The 
natural  tendency  will  be  to  select  a modern  language  from  this  op- 
tional group  of  studies,  on  the  ground  that  as  one  ancient  language, 
Latin,  has  already  been  taken,  no  adequate  reason  can  be  assigned 
for  introducing  a second  one  into  the  high  school  course.  The  de- 
cision of  this  matter  affirmatively  or  negatively  will  depend  upon 
the  circumstances  bearing  upon  the  individual  cases.  It  is  never 
wise  to  assert  dogmatically  that  Gree]^  should  or  should  not  be  taught 
in  the  high  school.  If  taught  properly  it  has  great  and  distinct  ed- 
ucational value,  and  no  pains  should  be  spared  in  defining  this  value 
in  those  schools  where  an  option  is  offered  in  its  favor. 

II.  THE  JUSTIFICATION  OF  GREEK. 

Greek  is  peculiarly  an  original  language  in  the  sense  that  it 
stands  chronologically  at  the  head  of  the  literary  languages  of  the 
world,  and  contains  in  itself  the  first  types  of  the  most  distincive 
and  fundamental  forms,  particularly  epic  and  lyric  poetry,  tragedy, 
comedy  and  artistic  prose  in  history,  oratory  and  philosophy. 


107 


These  are  not  imperfect  types,  but,  compared  with  those  pro- 
duced in  subsequent  times  in  the  most  cultivated  languages,  are 
found  to  stand  as  models  of  perfection  and  to  furnish  inspiration  for 
much  of  the  great  literature  of  the  world. 

The  history  of  what  is  distinctively  our  wwld  begins  with  the 
people  who  used  the  Greek  language.  The  new  Testament  is  writ- 
ten in  Greek. 

The  spirit  of  democracy  and  of  intellectual  freedom  is  in  the 
Greek  language  and  in  these  respects  it  is  much  nearer  to  the  spirit- 
ual life  of  the  American  people  than  Tatin.  In  these  respects  it  will 
also  bear  scrutiny  in  comparison  with  modern  languages. 

It  is  the  language  that  was  spoken  by  one  of  the  most  original 
and  creative  people  that  ever  lived  and  through  it  has  come  contri- 
butions of  inestimable  value  to  the  life  and  thought  of  the  modern 
world. 

The  study  of  a language  having  so  many  claims  to  pre-eminence 
and  having  in  it  so  much  that  is  fundamental,  has  a distinct  value 
from  a pedagogical  point  of  view  which  ought  not  to  escape  the  no- 
tice of  those  who  insist  on  the  modern  or  scientific  spirit  in  edu- 
cation. 

It  may  be  well  in  leaving  this  branch  of  the  subject  to  call  at- 
tention to  the  fact  that  there  is  a well-marked  tendency  in 
the  secondary  schools  to  study  one  ancient  and  one  modern 
language  if  two  languages  are  offered.  In  such  cases  Latin  is  al- 
most universally  chosen.  If  this  tendency  develops  into  distinct 
educational  policy,  then  it  may  be  questioned  whether  the  one 
ancient  language  should  be  Latin  rather  than  Greek,  and  whether 
the  philological  eminence  of  Latin  should  have  such  undue  weight  in 
settling  a question  so  important  for  the  intellectual  life  of  coming 
generations. 

III.  THE  FIRST  REQUISITE. 

The  first  requisite  for  successful  work  in  Greek  is  adequate  un- 
derstanding of  the  subject  on  the  part  of  the  teacher.  It  may  be 
said  that  this  is  true  of  every  subject;  it  is  pre-eminently  true  of  this. 
Greek  must  secure  recognition  if  at  all,  by  its  own  intrinsic  merits. 
The  indirect  and  incidental  support  that  Latin,  or  mathematics,  or 
modern  language,  or  science  has,  it  does  not  have.  To  receive  at- 
tention it  must  be  presented  by  some  one  who  knows  something  of 
its  real  and  vital  significance.  The  weary  road  through  the  Greek 
declension  and  conjugation  must  be  relieved  by  the  systematic  and 
appreciative  understanding  of  the  teacher,  if  the  pupil  is  to  perse- 
vere with  the  proper  degree  of  enthusiasm.  Immature  work  in  the 
Greek  class-room  will  destroy  interest  at  the  most  important  time. 
The  teacher  who  takes  a class  through  one  year  of  Greek  study 
without  giving  him  some  glimpses  of  the  more  pleasing  prospects 
beyond  is  a failure  as  a teacher  of  Greek. 


108 


IV.  TIMK  TO  BE  DEVOTED  TO  GREEK. 

Given  a competent  teacher  the  consideration  of  second  import- 
ance is  the  time  to  be  devoted  to  the  study.  The  course  of  study 
proposed  in  connection  with  this  manual  assigns  the  second 
language  to  the  third  and  fourth  years.  If  any  satisfactory  results 
are  to  be  secured  in  this  length  of  time,  there  should  be  five  recita- 
tion periods  a week  of  not  less  than  forty-five  minutes  each.  Better  re- 
sults would  be  secured  in  a one  hour  period.  In  two  years  under 
such  circumstances  a properly  qualified  teacher  can  prepare  a pupil 
for  admission  to  the  majority  of  our  colleges,  at  least  with 
entrance  conditions  of  no  great  difiiculty.  There  should  be  no  at- 
tempt to  “cram”  or  “force,”  but  rather  there  should  be  a normal 
advance  according  to  the  average  ability  of  the  class.  Any  college 
would  prefer  a pupil  “under  conditions,”  because  less  than  the  full 
requirement  had  been  completed,  but  with  intelligent  understand- 
ing of  the  work  already  done,  to  one  hastily  and  superficially  forced 
over  a larger  amount.  For  example,  it  is  more  desirable  that  a pu- 
pil be  able  to  read  easy  Greek  readily  than  that  he  be  able  to  “ pass  ” 
on  the  speeches  of  Xenophon,  as  a result  of  special  cramming.  The 
only  criterion  of  successful  work  is  the  actual  understanding  of  the 
pupil. 

V.  ESSENTIALS  FOR  ABILITY  TO  READ  GREEK. 

In  an  elementary  Greek  course  one  fundamental  object  should 
be  constantly  before  the  mind  of  the  teacher,  namely,  to  teach  his 
pupils  to  read,  Contributory  to  this  are  three  essentials:  1.  A 
knowledge  of  inflectional  forms.  2.  A knowledge  of  words  (vocab- 
ulary). 3.  A knowlede  of  the  grammatical  structure  of  the  average 
Greek  sentence  (syntax).  These  three  things  are  “ essentials  ” only 
as  far  as  they  contribute  to  reading  ability.  Too  often  they  receive 
the  predominant  share  of  the  attention,  while  the  one  fundamental 
aim  is  almost  lost  to  view. 

VI.  INFLECTIONAL  FORMS. 

The  constantly  recurring  inflectional  forms  should  be  thoroughly 
mastered,  gradually,  as  they  occur  in  the  lessons  and  paradigms. 
As  far  as  possible  this  work  should  be  correlated  to  the  reading  and 
writing  of  Greek.  Nothing  is  so  unpalatable  and  unprofitable  as  the 
mere  memorizing  of  forms  out  of  relation  to  any  vital  structure. 
Whenever  it  is  necessary  to  insist  on  this,  haste  should  be  made  to 
illustrate  the  functional  powers  of  the  dead  forms  by  copious  read- 
ing and  writing  exercises.  Indiscriminate  memorizing  of  forms  is 
pernicious  and  will  defeat  its  own  end. 

Nothing  said  in  this  connection  is  to  be  construed  as  underrat- 
ing the  importance  of  knowing  the  inflectional  forms.  This  knowl- 
edge is  fundamental,  but  the  memorizing  of  forms  is  never  to  be 
substituted  for  the  practical  understanding  which  comes  only 


109 


through  work  with  the  Greek  sentence  in  class  drill;  care  should  be 
taken  to  discriminate  between  common  forms  and  those  little  used. 

VII.  VOCABULARY. 

The  acquiring  of  a vocabulary  is  a very  important  problem  and 
it  should  be  approached  in  a rational  and  practical  manner.  To 
commit  words  to  memory  will  not  answer  the  requirements.  More 
important  it  is  to  memorize  words  in  their  relations  in  the  Greek 
sentence  so  that  with  the  vocabulary  there  may  come  to  the  learner 
something  of  the  peculiar  genius  of  the  language.  In  the  Greek 
lessons  a large  majority  of  the  words  used  in  the  Anabasis  should 
become  very  familiar.  To  note  how  readily  this  may  be  done  the 
following  words  are  quoted  from  the  preface  of  a well  known 
beginner’s  book:  “In  the  eleven  lessons, one  hundred  and  sixty-five 
words  are  used.  One  hundred  and  thirteen  are  nouns,  twenty-six 
are  verbs.  These  nouns  occur  in  the  Anabasis  over  thirty-five 
hundred  times.  The  verbs  occur  more  than  twenty-two  hundred 
times.’  ’ It  is  true  that  the  Greek  vocabulary  is  very  copious,  but  one 
may  read  the  language  with  a surprising  degree  of  ease  and  pleasure 
with  a comparatively  limited  stock  of  words  at  command.  Reading 
Greek  aloud  by  the  pupil,  listening  to  it  read  by  the  teacher,  mem- 
orizing sentences  and  select  passages,  oral  exercises  varied  to  suit 
the  circumstances,  retranslating,  written  exercises,  all  these  devices 
will  aid  in  acquiring  a vocabulary,  but  none  of  them,  or  all  of  them 
together,  will  compensate  for  copious  reading  of  simple  Greek 
prose. 

VIII.  GRAMMATICAL  RE:LATI0NS. 

The  third  point  to  be  emphasized,  a knowledge  of  grammatical 
relation,  is  not  to  be  considered  apart  from  the  others,  but  is  to  be 
carefully  united  with  them,  in  such  a way  that  gradually  the  essen- 
tial principles  become  well  fixed  in  mind.  Reviews  should  be 
frequent,  and  attention  should  be  constantly  called  to  passages 
already  passed  over  in  which  there  are  points  affording  comparison 
with  those  in  current  exercises. 

IX.  grlek  prose  composition. 

An  invaluable  help  in  all  the  points  mentioned  is  Greek  compo- 
sition used  constantly  and  judiciously.  No  definite  rules  can  be 
given  as  to  the  best  plan  for  conducting  this  exercise.  If  there  is 
sufficient  blackboard  space  a few  illustrative  exercises  might  be  put 
upon  the  board  each  day  as  a part  of  the  regular  lesson.  This  will  often 
prove  better  than  a set  exercise  once  a week  even  after  the  pupil  has 
laid  aside  the  first  book  for  the  Anabasis.  It  has  less  the  appear- 
ance of  a “grind”  and  will,  if  rightly  conducted,  contribute  most 
effectively  toward  the  mastery  of  the  work  in  hand.  Oral  and 
written  exercises  in  retranslation  should  be  frequent.  Impromptu 


110 


exercises  are  likely  to  be  more  helpful  than  those  prepared  outside 
of  the  class,  because  they  exercise  to  a greater  degree  the  pupil’s 
mental  independence  and  remove  the  possibility  of  reliance  upon 
others. 

X.  SIGHT  reading 

Sight  reading  should  be  provided  from  the  beginning,  and  should 
be  practiced  even  if  there  are  but  a few  moments  for  it.  In  no  other 
way  can  the  teacher  so  well  get  an  insight  into  the  difficulties  that 
beset  the  student,  and  in  no  other  way  will  the  student  himself  learn 
so  well  to  make  practical  application  of  the  facts  and  principles 
which  he  is  acquiring  so  rapidly.  In  all  tests  and  examinations 
passages  not  previously  seen  should  be  chiefly  used,  so  that  the 
student  may  learn  at  once  that  an  independent  knowledge  of  Greek 
is  the  aim  in  view,  rather  than  a superficial  ability  to  read  a certain 
number  of  pages  of  a given  text. 

XI.  kEADING  BOOKS. 

A reading  book  should  be  in  the  hands  of  the  pupil  at  the 
earliest  practicable  moment.  Fortunately  the  best  elementary  books 
now  introduce  connected  reading  exercises  from  the  first.  Among 
such  books  are  White’s  First  Greek  Book  (Ginn  & Company)  and 
Forman’s  Greek  Lessons  (Harper  Company).  Moss’s  First  Greek 
Reader  is  an  excellent  book  for  high  school  use. 

XII.  THE  ANABASIS. 

The  Anabasis  should  be  introduced  as  early  in  the  course  as 
possible.  After  this  is  done  a part  of  the  time  should  be  devoted  to 
a careful  study  of  the  text,  and  a part  of  it  to  more  rapid  reading. 
About  two  books  should  be  subjected  to  careful  analysis  and  study. 
An  attempt  should  be  made  to  read  at  least  two  books  more  rapidly. 

The  two  methods  should  be  used  in  conjunction  so  that  the 
tedium  of  the  slower  process  may  be  constantly  relieved  by  the 
foretaste  given  by  the  more  rapid  reading,  of  the  real  end  in  view. 
The  teacher  can  often  gain  much  time  and  create  great  enthusiasm 
for  this  work  by  suggesting  in  advance  the  solution  of  some  of  the 
more  troublesome  difficulties. 

XIII.  HOMER. 

The  last  part  of  the  second  year  may  be  profitably  devoted  to 
Homer,  provided  the  work  of  the  preceding  year  and  a half  has 
secured  in  reasonable  degree  the  desired  results.  Under  the  direc- 
tion of  a skillful  teacher  at  least  two  books  of  Homer  may  be  studied 
and  the  student  given  something  of  an  insight  into  the  real  greatness 
and  lasting  value  of  the  Greek  epic.  If  this  be  done  the  enlargement 
of  view  that  will  accrue  to  him  as  a consequence  will  be  an  adequate 
compensation  for  any  labor  that  may  have  been  bestowed  upon 
Greek,  and  in  the  life  of  any  youth  of  average  ability  it  will  prove  a 
practical  thing,  whether  he  continues  his  work  as  a student  or  not. 

.Tohn  H.  T.  Main. 


Ill 


GRAMMAR  I. 

If  there  is  any  easy  language,  the  language  is  not  English.  The 
structure  of  English  is  quite  as  complex  and  intricate  as  that  of  San- 
skrit or  Hebrew.  For  a specialist  to  claim  that  he  has  mastered  it  would 
be  as  absurd  as  a like  claim  concerning  chemistry.  The  pupil  ready 
to  enter  the  high  school  has  not  mastered  English  grammar.  If  a 
better  knowledge  of  the  subject  seems  sufficiently  desirable,  in  itself 
and  educationally,  a competent  teacher  will  find  no  lack  of  new 
material. 

A thorough,  accurate  knowledge  of  the  simpler  elements  of  Eng- 
lish grammar  should  be  gained  before  the  pupil  leaves  the  eighth 
grade.  If  he  then  never  enters  the  high  school  he  has  acquired  in- 
formation that  will  have  its  value  to  him  throughout  life,  and  his 
course  in  grammar  will  have  contributed  not  a little  toward  the  de- 
velopment of  his  mind.  If  the  pupil  enters  the  high  school,  he  has  a 
preparation  that  is  essential  to  the  successful  study  of  a foreign  lan- 
guage and  that  will  contribute  to  his  success  in  studies  less  evidently 
related. 

If  elementary  grammar  has  been  well  learned  before  the  begin- 
ning of  the  high  school  course,  probably  the  time  of  theininth,  tenth 
and  eleventh  grades  may  be  used  to  better  advantage  than  if  given 
to  repetitions  of  elementary  grammar  or  even  to  courses  in  grammar 
somewhat  more  advanced.  In  the  tw’elfth  grade  the  pupil  will  bring 
to  the  work  much  greater  capacity,  both  in  maturity  of  mind  and  in 
knowledge  to  serve  as  the  basis  of  comparisons. 

To  teach  grammar  successfully  is  difficult,  but  not  impossible. 
When  the  teacher  is  skillful  and  well  instructed,  pupils  do  not  find 
the  subject  impractical  or  dull.  But  the  teacher  of  English  needs 
special  training  quite  as  much  as  the  teacher  of  Latin  or  of  French. 
Without  it,  success  should  not  be  expected. 

Teachers  who  have  not  studied  the  history  of  the  language  would 
find  some  knowledge  of  earlier  stages  in  the  development  of  English 
most  helpful.  Without  a clear  perception  that  the  language  has  a 
life  a and  growth  scientific  study  of  English  grammar  is  impos- 
sible and  even  merely  practical  study  rests  upon  a wrong  basis. 
Rules  of  grammar  are  not  manufactured  by  grammarians;  and  dis- 
puted and  doubtful  points  should  be  consistently  referred  to  reason 
rather  than  to  text-book  authority. 

Unfortunately  no  adequate  manual  exists  to  help  the  ambitious 
teacher  conscious  of  defective  preparation.  All  teachers  of  English 
should  be  familiar  with  Lounsbury’s  History  of  the  English  Lan- 
guage (Holt),  and  with  Emerson’s  like-named  work  (Macmillan.) 
These  books,  however,  treat  almost  exclusively  of  etymology,  as 
does  Sweet’s  Short  Historical  English  Grammar  (Clarendon  Press) . 
A sound  and  simple  introduction  to  Old  English  is  given  in  Bright’s 
Anglo-Saxon  Reader  (Holt) ; to  Middle  English,  in  Liddell’s  Chaucer 
(Macmillan). 


112 


Among’  other  reference  books  accessible  to  the  teacher  and  the 
pupils  should  be  Mason’s  English  Grammar  (Macmillan);  the  gram- 
matical works  of  Bain  (Holt) ; Words  and  Their  Ways  in  English 
Speech,  by  Greenough  and  Kittredge  (Macmillan) ; and  Toller’s 
History  of  the  English  Language  (Macmillan). 

Among  good  modern  text-books  for  ^lass  use  maybe  mentioned, 
as  examples,  the  grammars  of  Whitney  (Ginn) , Whitney  and  Lock- 
wood  (Ginn),  Baskervill  and  Sewell  (American  Book  Co.),  Daven- 
port and  Emerson  (Macmillan),  and  Buehler  (Newson&Co.)  Other 
books  will  occur  to  any  teacher,  though  competition  in  this  field 
might  well  be  more  active. 

The  close  relation  between  the  various  departments  of  English 
study  should  be  recognized  in  all  classes.  While  teachers  do  not 
now  require  pupils  to  parse  all  of  Paradise  Lost,  interesting  construc- 
tions should  never  be  overlooked  by  classes  in  literature  or  in  com- 
position. Though  grammar  as  a distinct  subject  may  well  be 
omitted  in  the  ninth,  tenth  and  eleventh  grades,  certainly  no  ground 
should  be  lost.  The  college  student  in  the  Greek  New  Testament  is 
not  required  to  parse  every  word,  but  he  is  required  to  be  able  to  do 
this;  and  the  teacher  of  Shakespeare  should  not  be  accused  of  sacri- 
lege if  he  now  and  then  recognizes  that  Shakespeare  wrote  in 
English . 

C.  F.  Anslky. 


GRAMMAR  II. 

English  Grammar,  in  spite  of  the  continual  attempts  to  depreciate 
its  value,  is  one  of  the  leading  subjects  of  an  education.  The 
ability  to  dissect,  to  get  the  “anatomy”  and  “physiology”  of  our 
language,  then  to  re-create,  to  construct  the  language  again  from  its 
verbal  elements,  this  cannot  be  successfully  depreciated  by  the  most 
radical  innovator. 

Grammar  may  well  have  a half-year  of  the  high  school  student’s 
time.  It  should  be  studied  preferably  near  the  close  of  the  course 
for  if  the  pupil  has  studied  Latin  or  any  ancient  or  foreign  language 
he  will  then  have  the  advantage  of  the  comparative  study  of  lan- 
guage. Nothing  so  convinces  a young  person  of  the  real  “sense”  of 
grammar  as  the  finding  of  the  same  construction  in  different 
languages,  such  as  the  adverbial  accusative  for  example.  If  the  pupil 
has  not  studied  any  other  language,his  study  of  rhetoric,  literature, 
science,  advanced  mathematics  and  his  natural  maturity  of  mind 
will  fit  him  to  see  the  laws  of  grammar  in  a very  different  light. 
The  plan  of  studying  grammar  in  the  ninth  grade  too  often  is  an 
^excuse  for  idleness  in  the  seventh  and  eight  grades.  It  oughf  to 
be  possible  to  finish  the  elementary  phase  of  grammar  before  enter- 
ing the  high  school. 

It  will  prove  too  taxing  usually  to  teach  grammar  without  a 


113 


text  book,  but  the  book  should  be  carefully  chosen.  Text  books  in 
grammar  are  either  inductive  or  deductive.  Examples  of  the  in- 
ductive class  are  Conklin,  Metcalf,  Southworth  and  Goddard,  Reed 
and  Kellogg,  and  Whitney.  Of  the  deductive  class  are  Harvey, 
Swinton,  Maxwell,  Raub,  and  Green.  Each  class  has  its  supporters. 

To  the  advocate  of  deductive  methods,  inductive  text  books 
seem  without  plan  or  arrangement,  while  the  friends  of  inductive 
methods  assert  that  the  deductive  texts  are  dry,  unnatural  and  unin- 
telligible. There  is  no  doubt  that  grammar  should  first  be  presented 
inductively,  but  the  high  school  work  must  be  more  or  less  a matter 
of  review  in  this  subject,  and  here  the  deductive  method  finds  its 
proper  field,  for  the  pupil  needs  to  group,  arrange  and  classify  his 
store  of  grammatical  knowledge.  He  must  decide,  fix  and  retain 
rather  than  discover.  If  an  inductive  text  is  to  be  used,  it  ought  by  all 
means  to  have  an  analytical  index  as  well  as  an  alphabetical,  so  that 
the  worh  may  be  taken  up  in  topical  form,  regardless  of  the  order  of 
the  book.  It  is  unfortunate  that  authors  have  not  seen  fit  to  arrange 
analytical  indexes  for  grammars,  but  by  patient  digging  the  teacher 
can  prepare  one  for  himself. 

Pupils  should  be  given  much  practice  in  looking  up  subjects  by 
means  of  the  index.  At  first  this  must  be  under  the  direction  of  the 
teacher,  but  the  aim  should  be  to  lead  the  pupil  to  help  himself  to 
use  his  text  book  as  a working  manual  to  furnish  him  the  help  he 
most  needs  and  to  make  him  an  independent  student. 

The  analysis  of  the  sentence  should  be  the  chief  work  of  high 
school  grammar  classes.  It  calls  forth  to  the  highest  degree  the 
exercise  of  fine  discrimination  and  keen  reasoning  power.  By  these 
powers  the  student  is  enabled  to  read  the  relations  and  interdepend- 
encies in  the  sentence  and  thus  determine  the  office  of  each  proposi- 
tion, phrase  and  word.  Try  as  we  will  in  the  grammar  grades,  the 
pupil  will  rely  mainly  on  mechanical  devices  to  distinguish  the  parts 
of  speech.  This  has  been  the  experience  of  the  human  race,  as  is 
shown  by  the  highly  inflected  languages  of  the  ancients.  Asnatio  ns 
became  older  they  began  to  abandon  the  mechanical  endings  of 
words  to  show  their  use  in  a sentence.  The  English  language  being 
of  such  recent  origin,  has  very  few  inflections.  We  must  therefore 
tell  by  analysis  of  the  thought  what  the  ancients  could  recognize 
mechanically. 

The  first  step  to  be  taken  in  grammatical  analysis  of  involved  as 
well  as  simple  sentences  is  the  separation  into  subject  and  pre- 
dicate. For  example,  the  sentence,  “It  is  one  of  the  Indian  rules 
of  politeness  not  to  answer  a public  proposition  the  same  day  it  is 
made.”  The  subject  is  “not  to  answer  a public  proposition  the  same 
day  it  is  made;”  the  predicate,  “Is  one  of  the  Indian  rules  of  polite- 
ness.” The  predicate  may  ordinarily  be  distinguished  by  being  of 
wider  content  than  the  subject. 


114 


Such  work  is  purely  logical  and  ought  to  be  practiced  freely 
with  intricate  and  inverted  sentences  until  a high  proficiency  is 
reached.  Following  this  comes  the  separation  of  the  subject  into 
clauses,  phrases  and  words.  Much  of  this  work  is  in  reality  a sort 
of  disguised  parsing,  as  when  we  speak  of  a noun  clause,  adjec- 
tive phrase,  or  an  adverbial  modifier. 

Written  diagrams  assist  in  analysis  also,  as  the  learner  can 
see  at  every  step  the  part  of  the  sentence  that  he  has  finished  and 
ail  that  remains  to  be  done.  As  well  attempt  to  do  away  with  the 
written  solution  in  arithmetic  as  with  diagrams  in  grammatical 
analysis. 

The  plan  so  often  condemned,  of  giving  peculiar  sentences  for 
analysis,  such  as  “Crack  went  the  whip!”  seems  to  be  justifiable 
when  the  sentences  are  used  by  way  of  introducing  variety  and 
exciting  interest.  Often  they  aid  greatly  in  developing  the  keen 
and  ready  judgment  so  necessary  in  advanced  work  in  grammar. 
It  is  akin  to  the  prevalent  practice  in  geometry  of  giving  “exer- 
cises” for  the  student  to  solve.  Inverted  and  elliptical  sentences 
furnish  excellent  material  for  this  work. 

Greater  analytical  power  should  give  greater  synthetic  power, 
and  hand  in  hand  with  the  dissection  of  sentences  must  go  the 
building  of  sentences.  Learn  to  analyze  intricate  English  compo- 
sition and  then  take  up  the  original  work  of  building  such  struc- 
tures. Great  benefit  may  be  derived  by  giving  many  original 
sentences  illustrative  of  each  type  studied.  Any  one  who  has 
studied  Latin  knows  how  spontaneously  the  person  who  reads 
Caesar’s  Gallic  War  adopts  participial  constructions.  Such 
results  should  be  obtained,  if  work  in  synthesis  is  combined  with 
analysis. 

An  excellent  device  to  lead  the  pupil  to  see  his  own  shortcom- 
ings in  composition  is  to  place  side  by  side  with  one  of  the  loose, 
inaccurate  sentences  from  his  experiment  book  in  physics  or 
chemistry  one  of  the  gems  of  a master  of  clear  and  pure  English 
like  Hawthorne  or  Irving  and  note  such  points  as  accurate  use  of 
connectives,  participial  abridgements,  and  relative  clauses,  and 
have  the  student  compare  this  with  his  own  crude  work. 

Parsing  is  the  application  of  tests  to  determine  the  use  of  a 
word  in  a sentence;  never  does  it  consist  in  going  through  a cer- 
tain routine  as  if  the  word  had  such  inherent  properties.  Perhaps 
it  is  better  not  to  have  formal  parsing.  Taking  the  sentence, 
“There  was  a general  rush  to  Cape  Nome,”  how  is  “rush”  used? 
Subject  of  the  affirmation,  hence  noun,  nominative  case.  What 
does  “general”  do?  Describes  “rush,”  hence  descriptive  adjec- 
tive. Thus  the  necessary  facts  are  brought  out  and  the  ruts  of 
routine  are  avoided. 

The  principles  of  grammar  which  will  help  correct  prevalent 
errors  of  speech  ought  to  be  strongly  emphasized.  The  high 


115 


school  pupil  will  correct  his  errors  of  speech  by  application  of 
grammatical  principles  where  the  lower  grade  pupil  is  obliged  to 
depend  on  memorizing  correct  forms.  Hence  the  high  school  boy 
and  girl  need  to  emphasize  the  principal  parts  of  irregular  verbs, 
the  objective  and  nominative  forms  of  pronouns,  agreement  of  the 
verb  with  its  subject;  in  brief  the  entire  field  of  inflection  needs  to 
be  searched  and  every  point  of  weakness  thoroughly  covered. 

G.  K.  Finch. 


GEOLOGY. 

Much  that  might  be  offered  in  the  way  of  suggestion  to  teach- 
ers of  geology  has  been  said  under  the  section  of  physical  geogra- 
phy, the  more  elementary  and  the  more  widely  taught  of  these  two 
related  earth  sciences. 

In  many  of  the  towns  of  the  state  geology  is  of  particular 
interest  on  account  of  the  richness  of  the  local  field.  Nowhere  is 
there  wanting  a ready  approach,  and  in  cities  dependent  in  part 
on  mining,  as  Dubuque,  Ottumwa,  and  Fort  Dodge,  or  of  national 
fame  for  the  richness  of  fossiliferous  outcrops,  such  as  Burlington 
and  Rockford,  or  fortunate  in  the  exposures  of  various  formations 
or  in  the  topographic  interest  of  the  locality,  as  are  towns  and 
cities  too  numerous  to  mention,  the  local  conditions  awakening 
curiosity  and  interest  may  well  make  geology  a favorite  science. 

Geology  affords,  as  perhaps  no  other  subject  can,  a continuous 
discipline  in  inductive  reasoning.  It  gives  practice  in  logical 
statement  of  trains  of  reasoned  thought,  and  the  many  problems 
the  progressive  teacher  will  suggest  as  original  exercises  give  it  a 
field  comparable  to  that  of  inventional  geometry.  It  enlarges  the 
mind  to  conceive  of ‘the  vast  lengths  of  geologic  time  perhaps  even 
more  than  to  realize  in  astronomy  the  immensity  of  space.  For 
the  interstellar  spaces  are  void,  while  the  vistas  of  geologic  time 
are  crowded  with  the  events  which  make  the  history  of  creation. 

Geology  is  of  educational  value  on  account  of  its  close  core- 
lations with  other  subjects.  It  prolongs  the  perspective  of  his- 
tory. It  gives  a long  and  pregnant  past  to  zoology  and  botany. 
It  applies  the  principles  of  chemistry  and  physics,  and  borrows 
freely  from  astronomy.  Especially  is  the  geologic  control  over 
geography  direct  and  far  reaching,  and  it  is  exercised  thus  medi- 
ately, as  well  as  in  many  ways  immediately,  over  the  life  and  work 
and  history  of  man. 

Furthermore,  the  science  is  fundamental  in  the  training  of 
teachers.  The  newer  geographies,  with  their  wealth  of  geologic 
fact  and  principle,  cannot  be  successfully  taught  by  one  ignorant 
of  geology.  As  the  eminent  German  geographer,  Baron  Richtho- 
fen, has  well  said,  “The  surest  foundation  for  the  study  of  geog- 
raphy is  geology  in  its  whole  compass,  as  being  the  only  means  to 


116 


an  understanding  of  the  earth’s  surface.”  So  long  as  the  high 
school  supplies  the  teachers  of  geography  in  the  grades,  should 
it  provide  ior  the  effective  teaching  of  the  subject  matter  of  geol- 
ogy, under  whatever  name  it  may  be  known. 

In  order  to  make  the  science  of  the  greatest  value  in  the  equip- 
ment of  teachers  of  geography,  it  is  well  to  give  much  space  to  the 
dynamic  and  physiographic  sides  of  the  subject.  In  this,  the  sci- 
ence of  land  forms,  we  tread  the  overlap-land  between  geology  and 
geography.  It  was,  however,  by  geology  that  it  was  explored,  and 
described.  Educationally,  also,  the  simpler  and  more  easy 
approach  is  found  on  the  geologic  side,  the  path  of  genesis  and 
process,  instead  of  the  geographic  path  of  classification  by  form. 
Geology  thus  binds  as  closely  as  possible  together  causes  and 
consequences,  process  and  the  resulting  land  form. 

The  action  of  the  geologic  agents  and  the  modeling  of  the 
earth’s  surface  they  produce  can  hardly  be  given  too  much  space. 
Land  forms  should  be  made  real  by  model,  photograph,  lantern- 
view,  and  especially  by  the  topographic  map.  These  will  be  more 
readily  understood  if  practice  is  first  given  in  contouring  some 
relief-form,  a detached  hill,  or  some  ravine.  In  especial,  field 
excursions  should  be  taken  to  all  accessible  objects  of  geologic 
interest.  Exposures  of  the  indurated  rocks  and  of  glacial  till 
with  associated  sands  and  loess  can  hardly  be  studied  too  thor- 
oughly. The  cemetery  may  afford  examples  of  at  least  the  begin- 
ning of  rock  disintegration.  Profiles  of  creek  or  river  valley 
should  be  made.  In  this  work  in  the  field  the  reports  of  the  Iowa 
Survey  are  found  of  great  value. 

One  result  of  out- door  excursions  should  be  the  ^gathering  of  a 
small  school  museum.  Collections  of  common  rocks  and  rock-mak- 
ing minerals  may  be  obtained  cheaply  from  dealers,  as  from  Ward’s 
Natural  Science  Establishment,  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  and  E.  E.  Howell, 
Washington,  D.  C.  But  nothing  can  take  the  place  of  the  well- 
labelled  collection  of  common  specimens  illustrating  great  principles. 
The  block  of  red  clay  in  place  on  the  decayed  limestone  from  which 
it  weathered,  the  limestone  fragment  with  the  crystalline  fossils  left 
in  relief  above  the  softer  granular  matrix,  the  film  of  ferric  oxide 
from  the  decomposition  of  hornblende,  the  whitened  crust  of  felds- 
pathic  rock  changing  to  kaolin,  the  flint  nodule,  the  ripple-marked 
sandstone,  the  pebble  facetted  by  glacier  or  rounded  by  the  river — 
such  are  the  homely  specimens  worth  more  to  a school  than  some 
rare  and  brilliant  ores  from  distant  states. 

Drawing  should  be  made  much  of  both  in  the  laboratory  and  in 
recitation.  Sections  given  in  the  text  should  be  faithftlly  reproduced 
on  the  blackboard,  and  many  others  may  be  obtained  as  inventional 
exercises.  Profiles  should  be  drawn  from  topographic  maps.  In 
making  geologic  sections  those  of  the  Iowa  Geologic  Survey  will  be 


117 


found  helpful,  especially  those  in  the  report  on  Artesian  Wells  in  the 
Sixth  Annual  Report. 

Historic  geology  should  be  given  a subordinate  place.  Its  diffi- 
culty is  due  largely  to  the  lack  on  the  part  of  the  pupil  of  definite 
knowledge  of  the  present  forms  of  life.  It  is  an  incidental  value 
that  something  of  zoology  and  botany  may  be  thus  taught.  The  pu- 
pil may  perhaps  learn  for  the  first  time  of  the  splints  of  the  horse’s 
leg  when  he  studies  the  legs  of  its  ancestors.  It  is  recommended 
that  considerable  room  be  made  for  the  history  of  the  Pleistocene. 
Maps  of  the  state  should  be  drawn,  showing  the  area  of  the  different 
drift  sheets,  and  students  should  be  made  thoroughly  familiar  with 
their  topographic  expressions. 

An  increasing  interest  and  demand  is  evidenced  by  the  number 
of  text  books  recently  issued  and  announced  as  in  preparation. 
Brigham’s  Geology  (Appleton,  1901)  is  well  written  and  admirably 
illustrated,  well  up  to  date  and  perhaps  not  too  difficult  for  the  higher 
grades  of  the  high  school  where  considerable  time  can  be  given. 
Tarr’s  (The  Macmillan  Co.,  1897)  is  a lighter  book,  a simple  and 
lucid  presentation  of  the  leading  principles  of  the  science. 

WiLiyiAM  Harmon  Norton. 


MUSIC. 

General  obsejrvations. 

1.  Music,  to  be  successful,  must  be  taught  with  as  much  ear- 
nestness of  purpose  as  any  other  branch  of  study. 

2.  Music  should  have  an  accredited  place  in  the  curriculum, 
counting  for  graduation.  (The  opinion  of  the  author  not  yet  con- 
curred in  by  the  Committee.— Chairman.) 

3.  Music  in  high  school  should  have  two  thirty  to  forty  minute 
periods  per  week. 

4.  Glee  clubs  or  special  organizations  of  talented  pupils  should 
be  formed  and  used  on  special  days  to  encourage  and  develop  such 
talent. 

5.  The  music  used  in  high  school  should  be  on  the  same  high 
plane  as  its  literature,  its  songs  selected  as  carefully  as  its  classics. 

6 High  school  choruses,  to  do  careful  work,  should  contain  100 
to  150  pupils.  In  large  schools  two,  three  or  four  divisions  is  prefer- 
able to  one  large  chorus. 

I.  CITY  SCHOOLS. 

A.  When  music  has  been  taught  in  the  grades. 

7.  General  Requirements, 

a.  The  work  done  must  depend  upon  the  thoroughness 
and  scope  of  the  results  obtained  in  the  grades  be- 
low the  high  school. 


118 


b.  If  the  children  have  not  mastered  the  rudiments  of 

sight  reading  — ability  to  sing  at  sight  with  good 
tone  and  interpretation,  easy  songs  in  all  keys, 
this  must  be  reviewed  in  high  school. 

c.  The  pupil  should  have  a correct  idea  of  time  or 

rhythm  in  simple  and  complicated  arrangements. 

d.  Should  be  able  to  sing  easily  moderately  difficult 

chromatic  tones,  also  the  minor  scales  in  different 
forms. 

e.  Voices  should  have  been  tested  and  placed  on  part 

suited  to  the  individual.  Pupils  should  be  able  to 
carry  their  part,  sustaining  the  tone  true  to  pitch. 

f.  Pupils  should  have  learned  a number  of  selections 

from  the  masters  and  distinguished  between  the 
styles  of  composition. 

g.  If  pupils  are  thus  equipped  on  entering  high  school, 

the  further  work  of  studying  the  musical  literature 
of  the  best  composers  becomes  an  easy  and  de- 
lightful task. 

2.  Outline  for  First  Year  or  Ninth  Grade. 

a.  Review  the  minor  and  chromatic  scale. 

b.  Vocal  drills  with  vowels  e,  a,  o,  ah  and  oo.  Rapid 

scale  practice  with  same. 

c.  Pantomime  for  enunciation. 

d.  Tone  placing,  forward  tone,  head  tone  for  soprano. 

e.  Study  many  interesting  songs  and  glees,  national  and 

patriotic  songs  of  all  lands. 

f.  Analyze  songs — meaning  of  words,  historical  con- 

nection, setting,  spirit  and  expression,  phrasing 
and  finish. 

g.  Easy  choruses,  part  songs,  and  folk  songs. 

3.  Outline  for  Second  Year  or  Eleventh  Grade. 

a.  Drills  same  as  Ninth. 

b.  More  advanced  songs  and  glees. 

c.  Studies  in  c Musical  History,  evolution  of  modern 

musical  instruments,  biographies  of  the  masters, 
growth  of  music. 

d.  General  light  chorus  work. 

4.  Outline  for  Third  and  Fourth  YearSj  or  Eleventh  and 

Twelfth  Grades. 

a.  Vocal  drills  continued. 

b.  Oratorios  analyzed — selections  used  from  the  best 

known,  such  as  St.  Paul,  Elijah,  Creation,  and 
Messiah. 

c.  Operas  analyzed— selections  used, 

d.  Stories  of  plots  of  operas  in  current  use. 

e.  Sketches  of  great  singers  of  the  present. 


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f.  Occasional  programs  of  great  composers.  Invite 

musical  friends  to  assist. 

g.  Program  of  American  composers. 

h.  Advanced  choral  work  including  the  standard 

choruses. 

B.  When  music  has  not  been  taught  in  the  grades  below  the 
high  school. 

1.  General  Directions, 

a.  Pupils  must  be  interested  in  singing. 

b.  A dozen  problems  confront  the  teacher  in  this  position 

that  do  not  arise  when  music  has  been  taught,  such 
as  prejudice,  indifference,  diffidence,  untrained 
voices,  and  inability  to  carry  a part  other  than  the 
melody. 

c.  Tact  is  required  to  meet  and  overcome  all  obstacles. 

d.  High  school  pupils  appreciate  advanced  music, 

although  they  may  be  unable  to  read  it. 

e.  The  rudiments  of  sight  reading  must  next  be  taught 

very  thoroughly. 

f.  Blend  songs  and  easy  choruses  with  th^  technical 

work  to  keep  up  the  interest  until  the  reading  has 
been  mastered. 

g.  The  songs  will  be  largely  note  work  at  first. 

h.  Use  songs  whose  spirit  and  style  have  sufficient  dig- 

nity to  attract  their  attention  and  hold  the  respect 
of  critical  young  people,  yet  simple  enough  to  be 
within  their  reach. 

i.  Be  patient,  enthusiastic  and  get  results. 

2.  General  Work. 

a.  Teach  scale  as  a tune,  then  syllables. 

b.  From  charts  or  blackboard  present  staff , clef,  measure, 

meter  signature,  scale  in  all  positions,  kinds  of 
notes,  and  rests. 

c.  Teach  different  rhythms,  easy  exercises,  reading 

rapidly  in  all  keys.  Pitch  names,  key  signatures. 

d.  Introduce  part  singing.  From  book  read  large  num- 

bers of  carefully  graded,  progressive  exercises. 

e.  Teach  easy  chromatics,  minor  scales. 

f.  Test  voice.  Place  on  part  best  suited  for  voice. 

g.  Proceed  as  rapidly  as  possible  to  interesting  part 

songs  and  choruses. 

II.  VII.LAGK  SCHOOI.S. 

A.  When  music  has  been  taught  in  the  grades. 

1.  The  work  will  be  much  the  same  as  in  the  larger  schools. 


120 


2.  If  there  are  pupils  enough  to  form  but  one  chorus,  com- 

bine the  work  outlined  for  9th  and  10th  grades. 

3.  The  work  outlined! for  12th  grade  will  be  found  too  diffi- 

cult for  small  choruses. 

B.  When  music  has  not  been  taught. 

1.  The  same  difficulties  exist  as  in  city  schools  but  are 

easier  to  overcome. 

2.  Use  same  outline.  Sing  many  patriotic  and  national 

songs,  bright  glees. 

III.  LIST  OF  COURSES  SUITABLE  FOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 

Those  marked  by  * are  difficult.  Those  marked  t are  easy. 

Ginn  & Co.  Coda, 
t Anchored . 

A moonlight  Boatride,  (Miserrere.) 

As  Pants  the  Hart. 

* Be  Not  Afraid,  (Elijah.) 

* Bridal  Chorus,  (Rose  Maiden.) 
t Come  Flit  Around. 

Fairyland  Waltz. 

Football  Day. 

* Gloria,  (Mozart.) 

* Good  Night  Beloved,  (Pinsuti.) 

Hark  Apollo  Strikes  the  Eyre. 

Heaven  and  Earth  Display. 

Let  Love  Undying. 

t Night, 
t Red  Scarf.  ' 

Revel  of  the  Leaves. 

* The  Heavens  are  Telling,  (Creation.) 

* Hallelujah  Chorus,  (Messiah.) 

t Sleep  While  the  Soft  Evening  Breezes,  (Silver,  Burdette 
&Co.) 

* And  the  Glory  of  the  Lord,  (Messiah.) 

Away  to  the  Fields. 

Boatman’s  Good  Night. 

* Damascus  Triumphant  March, 
t Gallant  and  Gaily. 

Great  Dagon. 

Little  Jack  Horner,  (Caldicoll.) 

Lullaby  From  Ermine, 
t Merry  June. 

t Now  the  Music  Soundeth. 

O,  Skylark  for  Thy  Wing. 

Rest  Thee  My  Little  One. 

Unfold  Ye  Portals. 


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* We  Free  Born  Sons  of  Wodan  Octavo. 

* Break,  Break,  (Maidling-er.) 

* Faithful  and  True,  (Tohengrin.) 

* Gypsy  Life,  (Schumann.) 

* We  Watching-  Over  Israel,  (Elijah.) 

* Hail  Bright  Abode,  (Tannhauser.) 

* Honor  and  Glory,  (Costa.) 
t O,  Italia. 

* How  Lovely  are  Thy  Messengers. 

Millan’s  Wooing. 

Oh  Hush  Thee,  My  Baby, 
t Praise  Ye  the  Father, ^(Gounod.) 

* Song  of  the  Mountaineers. 

* Spring  Song,  (Pinsuti.) 

Spring  Song,  (Strauss.) 

Stars  of  Summer  Night,  (Smart.) 

* Thanks  Be  to  God,  (Elijah.) 

* Waltz  From  Faust. 

When  Daylight’s  Going,  (Somnambuli.) 

* Zion  Awake,  (Costa.) 

* The  Cantata  Ruth  by  Gaul. 

Mrs.  Francks  Ckark. 

Noth. — A valuable  and  suggestive  paper  on  music  was  also  con- 
tributed by  Mrs.  F.  R.  Davis,  West  Waterloo,  Iowa. 


ZOOLOGY. 

I.  The  Tkacher.  The  best  way  to  deal  witn  animal  study 
when  the  teacher  to  whom  the  work  is  intrusted  is  inadequately 
trained,  or  not  by  nature  endowed  with  a genuine  interest  in  ani- 
mal life,  is  not  to  teach  it  at  all.  Special  training  is  just  as  neces- 
sary in  the  case  of  a teacher  of  Zoology  as  in  that  of  a teacher  of 
Latin,  and  it  is  far  better  to  drop  the  matter  entirely  from  the 
course  than  to  have  the  child’s  conception  of  nature  as  manifested 
in  living  forms  ruined  by  a faulty  introduction  at  the  outset.  We 
assume,  then,  that  the  teacher  has  had  a thorough  course  in  Zool- 
ogy or  Biology  in  university,  college  or  properly  conducted  normal 
school,  and  that  he  or  she  does  not  teach  the  subject  under  pro- 
test, but  because  a real  love  for  the  study  of  animals  renders  such 
teaching  a pleasure. 

II.  The  Objects  to  be  Attained  Shoule  be  Well  Defined. 
There  should  be  a clear  conception  in  the  mind  of  the  teacher  of 
what  he  is  trying  do,  and  toward  this  end  all  the  work  should  be 
Intelligently  centered.  These  objects  are  numerous,  but  there  are 


122 


three  which,  in  onr  opinion,  are  of  paramount  importance. 
These  are. 

1.  The  cultivation  of  the  power  of  observation.  The  ability  to 
see  things,  and  to  see  them  correctly,  is  not  a natural,  but  an 
acquired  faculty.  It  is  quite  exceptional  to  find  either  a child  or 
an  adult  who  has  good  observational  ability  unless  that  ability 
has  been  brought  out  by  careful  training.  No  study  surpasses 
that  of  Zoology  in  its  value  in  this  direction  when  rightly  used. 

2.  The  cultivation  op  the  power  of  description.  This  is  still 
more  rare  in  children,  at  least,  than  the  preceding.  Indeed,  the 
deficiency  is  by  no  means  confined  to  children.  Not  one  in  twenty 
university  students  is  able  to  describe  an  ordinary  object  with  any 
facility  until  he  has  been  carefully  trained.  The  power  of  good 
description  is  psychologically  a very  high  one,  acquired  late  by 
the  race,  and  usually  by  the  individual.  For  this  reason  the  sci- 
ence of  Zoology  requires  considerable  maturity  of' mind,  if  the 
best  educational  results  are  to  be  obtained,  and  should  come  as 
late  as  possible  in  the  high  school  course.  The  power  of  descrip- 
tion should  be  very  carefully  trained  by  the  teacher,  who,  if  faith- 
ful, can  thus  secure  psychological  improvement  of  the  utmost 
practical  importance. 

Animals  usually  have  definite  forms  and  colors  and  parts  that 
lend  themselves  readily  to  concise  description.  But  to  secure  this 
from  the  pupil  requires  all  the  firmness,  patience,  and  tact  that  the 
teacher  can  command. 

3.  The  cultivation  of  the  power  op  reasoning.  The  student, 
having  learned  to  see  and  to  describe,  should  be  led  to  think,  to 
compare,  to  judge,  and  to  infer.  This  is  the  crowning  glory  of  the 
teacher’s  service — to  stimulate  thought,  to  induce  in  the  pupil  the 
habit,  not  only  of  asking,  but  of  answering  questions.  Such  ques- 
tions as.  Why  is  this  so?  How  did  it  become  so?  Are  these  two 
organs  really  alike,  or  only  seemingly  so?  Why  are  these  two  but- 
terflies so  alike  in  form  and  color  while  so  diffierent  in  anatomical 
details?  How  is  it  that  the  bones  in  my  hands  are  so  like  those 
in  the  flipper  of  the  seal?  It  is  this  part  of  the  work  that  can  be 
made  the  most  fascinating  to  both  teacher  and  taught.  But  it 
should  be  continually  borne  in  mind  that  the  pupil  should  be 
encouraged  to  answer  his  own  questions,  the  teacher  seeing  to  it 
that  the  proper  facts  be  placed  before  him  in  the  form  of  speci- 
mens if  possible,  and  of  books  or  lectures  if  necessary. 

Hasty  conclusions  and  generalizations  should  not  be  encour- 
aged. An  honest  conclusion,  although  incorrect,  may  be  of  more, 
educational  benefit  than  a correct  conclusion  that  is  simply 
“jumped  at.’’ 

III.  Method  of  Teaching  Zoology.  While  almost  any 
method  (except  the  text-book  method)  can  be  made  to  do  good 
service  in  animal  study,  there  are  certain  ways  of  teaching  that 


123 


experience  has  proved  to  be  of  superior  merit.  Perhaps  these 
may  best  be  embodied  in  the  following  suggestions: 

1.  Study  those  forms  of  animal  life  that  are  most  abundant  in 
your  vicinity  and  that  can  easily  be  secured  and  often  brought 
alive  into  your  classroom.  The  hydra,  the  clam,  the  earth-worm, 
the  crayfish,  the  grasshopper,  the  perch,  the  frog,  the  garter  snake, 
and  the  rabbit  are  almost  everywhere  available  and  form  labora- 
tory standbys  that  can  hardly  be  dispensed  with. 

2.  Study  the  external  anatomy,  the  gross  internal  structure, 
and  the  life  history  as  far  as  possible.  Most  of  the  more  import- 
ant anatomical  points  can  be  made  out  with  the  unaided  eye  or 
dissecting  lens.  These  points  are  in  general  more  available  than 
the  minute  structure  for  attaining  the  educational  advantages 
mentioned  above.  Moreover,  they  can  be  ascertained  without 
expensive  equipment,  and  therefore  be  at  the  service  of  all  high 
school  teachers. 

3.  We  would  recommend  that  most  of  the  time  devoted  to  the 
course  be  put  in  the  study  of  invertebrate  animals,  because  they 
are  in  general  more  conveniently  secured  and  handled  than  verte- 
brates, they  can  be  more  easily  dissected,  and  their  study  involves 
less  pain  to  the  animals  themselves.  A few  typical  vertebrates 
should  also  be  studied,  not  because  they  furnish  better  educa- 
tional drill,  but  because  they  afford  a necessary  introduction  to 
human  anatomy  and  physiology. 

4.  Some  sort  of  guide  or  manual  being  usually  necessary,  we 
recommend  as  of  special  merit  a little  work  called  “Practical 
Zoology,”  by  Colton  (Heath  & Co.,  Boston),  as  embodying  our 
ideas  as  to  the  general  method  to  be  followed. 

5.  As  may  be  inferred  from  suggestion  4,  we  do  not  recom- 
mend the  use  of  the  compound  microscope  in  high  school  work, 
except  as  an  occasional  aid  in  special  cases.  We  admit  the  fascin- 
ation of  the  microscope  and  its  indispensable  aid  in  more 
advanced  investigation,  but  regard  it  as  most  important  that  the 
pupil  learn  to  use  his  ejes  first,  and  to  study  the  entire  animal  as 
a unit  and  its  parts  as  organs,  before  being  introduced  to  the  his- 
tological structure,  which  logically  comes  last. 

IV.  Equipment.  This  will,  of  course,  very  greatly,  accord- 
ing to  the  available  funds  and  the  ideas  of  the  school  board. 
Among  the  practically  indispensable  requisites,  the  following  may 
be  mentioned: 

1.  Laboratory  tables,  plainly  and  solidly  constructed,  the 
main  requirements  being  a top  that  will  not  be  injured  by  water,  a 
good  sized  drawer  for  each  pupil,  and  a good  light.  The  size  and 
arrangement  of  tables  must  be  adapted  to  the  shape  of  the  room 
and  the  position  of  the  windows. 

2.  Dissecting  Microscopes.  These  should  be  as  good  as  the 
state  of  the  treasury  will  permit.  This  is  the  worst  place  to 


124 


practice  economy,  but  if  economy  must  be  used,  it  should  be 
borne  in  mind  that  a good  dissecting  lens  is,  in  our  opinion,  better 
than  an  inferior  dissecting  microscope. 

3.  Dissecting  tools,  such  as  forceps,  scissors,  scalpels,  nee- 
dles, etc.,  should  be  furnished  to  each  student;  also  at  least  one 
dissecting  pan  with  a wax  or  cork  bottom.  Conveniences  for 
washing  and  wiping  the  hands  should  not  be  neglected. 

5.  Specimens  for  study  can,  in  most  cases,  be  secured  with- 
out expense  if  the  tercher  is  energetic  and  the  class  genuinely 
interested.  Living  specimens  can  usually  be  secured  by  the  stu- 
dents, except  in  the  winter,  if  they  are  wisely  directed,  A large 
supply  of  reserve  material  in  alcohol  or  formalin  can  be  kept  in 
store,  the  material  being  collected  in  spring,  summer  and  autumn. 
Every  opportunity  to  get  students  into  the  field  should  be  utilized. 

5.  A collection  of  local  animals  can  be  made  by  the  teacher 
and  pupils  and  increased  year  by  year.  This  is  one  cf  the  very 
best  methods  of  stimulating  and  sustaining  interest  and  utilizing 
the  out-door  activity  of  the  pupils.  It  involves,  however,  a good 
deal  of  work  such  as  only  the  truly  devoted  teacher  will  carry  to  a 
successful  conclusion. 

Finally.  The  most  should  be  made  of  every  specimen,  as  an 
unnecessary  destruction  of  animal  life  should  never  be  permitted, 
much  less  encouraged,  by  the  teacher. 

(Where  further  details  are  desired,  information  should  be 
secured  from  some  one  who  has  had  considerable  practical  experi- 
ence in  conducting  such  work.  In  no  case  should  an  inexperi- 
enced teacher  be  allowed  to  order  or  select  equipment  without 
such  aid.)  C.  C.  Nutting, 

Gilbert  L.  Houser, 

M.  F.  Arey. 

Note: — The  chapter  on  Manual  Training  was  intended  to  be 
placed  in  Part  III,  but  by  mistake  in  printing  was  inserted  in  Part  I. 


Part  IV.  (APPENDIX) 

PHYSICAL  TRAIMNG. 

I,  THINGS  TO  BE  ACCOMPLISHED. 

1.  Recreation.  The  actively  working  brain  needs  frequent 
resting  so  that  worn-out  tissue  may  be  rebuilt.  This  recreation  can 
often  be  most  effectively  accomplished  by  a change  to  physical  work 
rather  than  by  enforced  inactivity. 

2.  Bodily  Development.  By  systematic  physical  exercise  the 
weak  body  can  be  made  active  and  muscular.  Suitable  “body  work’' 
increases  the  functional  activity  of  internal  mucles  and  glands. 

3.  Mental  Development.  By  the  use  of  moderately  complex 
movements  the  pupil  should  be  taught  to  use  mind  and  body  to- 
gether, The  will,  too,  is  strengthened  by  suitable  gymnastic  drill. 
Care  must  be  taken  not  to  add  such  work  to  already  over-burdened 
pupils.  Complex  or  fatiguing  work  [should  be  used  only  with  the 
greatest  caution. 

4.  In  General.  Seek  to  promote  the  growth  of  physically  per- 
fect men  and  women. 

II.  APPLIANCES. 

1.  Apparatus.  Good  results  may  be  obtained  without  the  use 
of  apparatus.  It  is  possible  to  give  a lesson  in  “freehand”,  one  that 
brings  into  play  all  the  muscles  of  the  body  with  no  apparatus  what- 
ever. Many  exceedingly  beneficial  exercises  may  be  taken  while 
seated.  If  the  means  are  at  hand  to  procure  apparatus,  dumb  bells, 
wands  and  Indian  clubs  in  the  order  named  are  the  most  profitable. 

2.  Space.  The  lesson  outlined  below  may  be  given  with  only 
the  space  afforded  by  the  aisles  between  the  desks.  It  is  of  the 
greatest  importance  to  have  the  room  well  ventilated  and  free  from 
dust. 

3.  Music.  Good  music  as  an  occasional  accompaniment  to  ex- 
ercise is  a valuable  addition.  It  is  not  necessary  however.  When 
movements  are  executed  rythmically  the  teacher  may  count. 

III.  qualifications  necessary  for  good  teaching. 

1.  An  intimate  personal  knowledge  of  the  pupil  is  necessary — 
his  ability  to  resist  fatigue,  his  mental  temperament  and  his  bodily 
defects.  This  knowledge  is  possible  only  for  the  grade  teacher  herself 
— considering  now  large  town  and  city  schools.  The  history  of  gym- 


126 


nasties  in  the  schools  seems  to  indicate  that  it  is  unwise  to  hire  a 
special  teacher  of  physical  training-  who  shall  give  lessons  in  each 
room.  In  the  high  school  it  is  wise  to  deputize  some  teacher,  who 
seems  the  best  fitted  by  nature,  to  undertake  the  direction  of  physical 
exercise.  Her  own  ingenuity  and  such  special  training  as  she  can 
secure  will  enable  her  to  devise  work  that  will  be  of  great  value  to 
the  pupils. 

2.  The  teacher  should  be  acquainted  with  the  fundamental  prin- 
ciples of  physiology  and  hygiene,  and  especially  with  the  physiolog- 
ical effects  of  exercise.  Short  talks  on  matters  of  personal  hygiene 
will  interest  the  pupil  in  the  care  of  his  own  body. 

IV.  A TYPICAL  LLSSON  IN  FRLLHAND  FOR  BFOINNFRS. 

Lesson  One. 

1.  Ordfr  of  Kxfrcisks:  Attention;  arms  out,  front,  up. 

2.  keg:  Rising  on  tiptoe,  16. 

3.  Neck:  Clasp  hands  back  of  head  and  bend  head  backward 

against  resistance,  8. 

4.  Arm:  With  arm  out,  clench  fist,  then  fiex  arm  at  the 

elbow,  16. 

5.  Balancing:  Toe  stand. 

6.  Shoulder:  Arms  front,  to  out,  16. 

7.  Waist:  Hands  on  hips,  bend  body  to  right  and  left.  12. 

8.  Back:  Bend  body  to  front,  16. 

9.  Heart  and  kungs:  Hopping  on  right  foot,  24;  left,  24. 

10.  Breathing:  Arms  up  as  lungs  are  inflated,  down  as  they 

are  deflated,  8. 

V.  methods  of  teaching. 

{a).  Indoor  Exercise. 

1.  Explanatory  of  above  lesson:  The  order  of  arrangement  of 

these  exercises  is  based  on  physiological  principles.  This  order 
should  be  maintained  in  all  lessons.  A great  variety  of  lessons  is 
still  possible,  all  following  this  general  arrangement.  The  figures 
following  each  exercise  are  the  counts  given  to  each.  The  number 
of  counts  may  be  varied  to  suit  circumstances.  Commands  should 
be  imperative.  Accent  the  last  word  of  command,  as:  Arms  up,  or 
Raise  the  arms  on  counts.  Begin. 

2.  Position:  The  teacher  should  insist  on  a good  position, 

chest  raised,  hips  well  back,  weight  on  the  balls  of  the  feet.  These 
are  the  important  points  in  standing.  Care  should  be  taken  to  seat 
the  pupils  properly.  A few  minutes’  daily  work  in  calisthenics  can 
not  be  expected  to  overcome  the  bad  effects  of  a faulty  position  dur- 
ing the  rest  of  the  day. 

3.  Dress:  The  dress  must  be  loose  fitting  to  give  opportunity 

for  growth  and  movement. 

4.  Manuals:  These  are  abundant.  Care  should  be  taken  to 

procure  something  simple  and  logical.  Proceed  slowly  to  movements 


127 


a little  more  complex  as  your  pupils  and  yourself  become  better  pre- 
pared for  them.  Jessie  B.  Bancroft’s  “Freehand  Gymnastics”  and 
“Sight  Apparatus  Gymnastics”  are  excellent  for  grade  teachers. 
From  the  simple  movements  described  and  illustrated  in  W.  G.  An- 
derson’s “Gymnastic  Nomenclature”  combinations  of  any  desired 
complexity  may  be  built. 

5.  Calisthentics  may  become  dry  and  uninteresting.  Rely  on 
them  only  as  an  alternative  with  out-of-door  exercises  frequently. 
Become  interested  yourself  and  your  interest  will  be  communicated 
to  your  pupils. 

(d).  Out  Do o r Exercise . 

1.  It  is  a mistake  to  think  that  gymnastics  can  ever  take  the 
place  of  out  door  exercise.  Play  is  all  important  for  the  young 
child.  He  is  only  happy  when  active  and  his  activity  is  most  bene- 
ficial when  it  is  of  the  spontaneous,  involuntary  sort,  and  when 
taken  out  of  doors. 

2.  The  teacher  should  share  in  recitation.  She  may  supervise 
and  even  join  in  the  play  without  endangering  her  dignity. 

Finally,  we  do  not  contend  that  a teacher  can  become  an  expert 
instructor  of  gymnastics  in  a few  months.  But  she  can  do  some- 
thing at  once;  something  that  will  be  valuable  for  her  pupils  and 
that  will  aid  her  in  her  work  as  well.  Many  difficulties  will  be  en- 
countered but  these  are  in  the  main  more  formidable  in  appearance 
than  in  reality.  The  end  is  worthy  of  the  most  painstaking  effort. 

Professor  DAyis,  Iowa  College. 


THE  INNER  LIFE  OF  A HIGH  SCHOOL. 

The  discussion  and  papers  here  presented  are  specially  connected 
with  the  formal  side  of  high  school  education,  endeavoring  to  care- 
fully point  out  all  the  fundamental  and  elective  phases  of  secondary 
schools  as  found  in  Iowa  cities  and  towns.  The  establishment  and 
organization  of  these  great  agencies  for  good  have  therefore  these 
definite  designs  in  view.  But  there  is  much  that  is  undesigned,, 
which  after  all  is  specially  effective  in  developing  and  training 
pupils  of  these  important  grades.  Such  powerful  agencies  constitute 
the  inner  life  of  the  school  and  are  the  product  of  the  best  efforts  of 
both  teachers  and  pupils.  Influences  of  this  sort  bring  out  charac- 
ter, test  strength,  measure  manly  and  womanly  gifts,  original  and 
acquired,  and  betoken  leadership  and  promise  in  the  life  beyond 
school  days.  While  not  underestimating  the  work  of  school  boards 
and  teachers  in  bringing  to  bear%  upon  the  pupils  the  great  designed 
influences  already  emphasized,  it  is  certainly  not  necessary  to  forget 
what  the  students  are  gaining  for  themselves,  socially,  personally, 
intellectually  and  morally  through  the  inner  life  of  the  school.  The 


128 


teacher  as  a social  and  religfious  force  can  do  much  to  elevate  and 
encourage  the  pupils  through  the  securing  of  self  help  and  self 
dependence  as  well  as  self  control.  Among  the  influences  that 
count  the  largest  in  the  healthy  development  of  the  individual  pupil 
is  the  spirit  of  his  surroundings.  This  has  a decided  effect  upon  the 
student  tendencies  according  as  it  stands  for  excellence  in  scholar- 
ship, high  minded  purpose  and  strength  of  character.  The  public 
opinion  found  among  pupils  practically  determines  the  conduct  and 
tendency  of  individual  life  and  decides  the  ideas  that  are  assumed  as 
foremost  in  a pupil’s  career.  The  so-called  college  spirit  that  is  marked 
by  yells  and  confusion  and  organized  enthusiasm,  and  that  frequently 
contributes  to  recklessness  and  lawlessness,  has  no  proper  place  in 
the  conduct  and  inner  life  of  a superior  high  school.  These  mani- 
festations in  American  education,  through  athletic  and  other  contests, 
while  having  something  to  do  with  developing  zeal,  power,  skill  and 
spirit,  are  frequently  allowed  to  develop  a disposition  to  scheme,  to 
deceive  and  to  practice  fraud.  The  ambition  to  win  at  all  hazards 
and  by  any  methods,  without  regard  to  ethics  or  merit,  is  always  to 
be  treated  as  an  evil  tendency,  greatly  to  be  deplored.  Hence  the 
creation  and  development  of  an  ideal  spirit  is  the  very  highest  aim 
of  all  the  combined  forces  in  secondary  education  as  the  formative 
period  of  youth  gives  promise  of  the  largest  and  most  effective 
returns  for  effort.  School  administration  should  never  be  allowed  to 
get  away  from  the  great  thought  that  high  school  work  ought  to  be 
managed  in  character,  purpose  and  ideals  for  the  securing  of  those 
types  of  ambition,  application,  manhood  and  womanhood  which  are 
recognized  as  absolutely  essential  to  the  proper  development  of  the 
best  American  citizens. 

H.  H.  Sekri^KY. 


ATHLETICS. 

This  report  would  hardly  be  complete  without  giving  the  status 
of  high  school  athletics  and  the  consensus  of  opinion  regarding 
these  popular  sports.  There  is  a growing  tendency  for  the  high 
school  to  undertake  the  games  that  are  common  in  colleges.  This 
tendency  must  be  regarded  as  a serious  problem  since  neither  school 
boards  nor  high  school  teachers  have  any  legal  authority  to  super- 
vise or  control  these  matters  at  the  hours  or  in  the  places  that 
these  games  occur,  as  the  high  school  pupils  are  then  under  the 
direct  control  of  their  parents  and  the  police  power  of  their  com- 
munities, the  teachers  not  being  able  to  efficiently  employ  more 
than  moral  or  advisory  control.  Fatalities  and  accidents  are 
reported  more  commonly  from  high  school  teams  than  from  college 
teams  because  of  their  immaturity  and  unfitness  for  such  violent 
exercises.  The  best  informed  physical  directors  and  authorities  on 


129 


athletics  do  not  accept  foot  ball  for  men  and  basket  ball  for  women 
as  they  are  played  in  the  colleges  as  at  all  safe  or  desirable  for 
high  school  pupils,  particularly  if  there  are  to  be  competitive  games 
with  other  high  school  teams.  Since  the  colleges  have  long  since 
been  compelled  to  repudiate  all  athletics  not  directly  supervised  by 
a competent  physical  director  as  dangerous  to  life  and  limb  to  full 
grown  men,  it  certainly  cannot  be  considered  either  safe  or  benefi- 
cial for  high  school  teams,  made  up  of  immature  and  undeveloped 
young  men  and  women,  to  be  encouraged  to  continue  an  unregu- 
lated system  of  games  that  may  in  the  end  prove  harmful  and 
dangerous.  This  discussion  does  not  undertake  to  treat  the  subject 
of  college  athletics,  since  that  does  not  belong  to  this  committee’s 
work,  and  in  recommending  the  control  and  regulation  of  all  high 
school  athletics  with  the  elimination  of  every  kind  that  endangers 
life  or  the  limbs  of  the  pupils,  it  is  not  to  be  understood  that  the 
college  athletics  as  practiced  are  endorsed  as  being  free  from  the 
most  serious  objections.  H.  H.  Se:kri.Ey. 


I.  RULES  GOVERNING  THE  ACCREDITING  OF  HIGH 
SCHOOLS. 

High  schools  meeting  the  following  conditions  may,  on  vote  of 
the  Committee  on  Secondary  School  Relations,  representing  the  col- 
lege department  of  the  Iowa  State  Teachers’  Association,  be  accred- 
ited as  affording  their  graduates  full  preparation  for  one  or  more  col- 
lege courses ; and  graduates  of  such  schools  will  be  admitted  with- 
out conditions  or  examinations  (except  in  certain  subjects,  e.  g. 
English,  as  provided  in  the  catalogs  of  the  several  colleges)  to  such 
college  courses  of  study  as  their  high  school  studies  have  prepared 
them  to  enter;  provided  they  present  certificates  signed  by  the  super- 
intendent of  schools  or  the  principal  of  the  high  school,  specifying  in 
detail  the  amount  and  character  of  their  preparatory  work,  as  shown 
by  the  branches  of  study  pursued,  the  length  of  time  spent  upon 
each,  the  ground  covered  in  each,  the  text-books  used,  and  the 
average  standings  attained,  and  specifically  recommending  the  ap- 
plicant as  of  good  moral  characrte,  studious  habits,  and,  judging 
from  the  previous  records,  able  to  carry  on  college  work  successfully. 

1.  The  course  of  study  must  not  be  less  than  four  years  of  thirty- 
six  weeks  each  in  length,  following  an  elementary  course  not  less 
than  eight  years  of  thirty-six  weeks  each  in  length. 

2.  The  course  of  study  must  require  of  each  pupil  not  more  than 
four  recitations  daily. 

3.  The  entire  time  of  at  least  three  teachers  must  be  given  to 
instruction  in  high  school  branches. 

4.  The  quality  of  the  instruction  given  and  the  character  of  the 
text-books  used  must  be  approved  by  the  Committee  on  Secondary 


130 


School  Relations.  The  present  officers  of  this  committee  are: 
Chairman,  President  J.  H.  T.  Main,  Grinnell,  Iowa;  Secretary,  Pro- 
fessor Thomas  Nicholson,  Mount  Vernon,  Iowa.  The  names  of  the 
committee  in  full  will  be  found  each  year  in  the  report  of  the  Iowa 
State  Teachers’  Association,  College  Department. 

5.  Schools  seeking  considerable  credit  in  science  must  demon- 
strate their  ability  to  do  successful  laboratory  work. 

6.  Schools  seeking  considerable  credit  in  history  and  English 
must  give  evidence  of  a special  library  equipment  for  teaching  these 
branches. 

High  schools  maintaining  courses  of  study  less  than  four  years 
in  length,  and  employing  less  than  three  teachers,  may  by  vote  of 
the  Committee  on  Secondary  School  Relations,  be  accredited  as 
affording  their  graduates  partial  preparation  for  one  or  more  college 
courses,  provided  they  meet  the  following  conditions: 

1.  The  course  of  study  must  be  the  equivalent  of  at  least  one 
year  of  thirty-six  weeks  in  length,  following  an  elementary  course 
of  not  less  than  eight  years  of  thirty-six  weeks  each  in  length. 

2.  The  course  of  study  must  require  of  each  pupil  not  more 
than  four  recitations  daily. 

3.  The  entire  time  of  at  least  two  teachers  for  a three-yearo,ovir^^, 
the  entire  time  of  at  least  one  teacher  with  half  time  of  another 
teacher  for  a two-year  course,  and  the  entire  time  of  at  least  one 
teacher  for  a one-year  q,ovlxs^\  must  be  given  to  instruction  in  high 
school  branches. 

4.  The  quality  of  the  instruction  given  and  the  character  of  the 
text-books  used  must  be  approved  by  the  Committee  on  Secondary 
School  Relations. 

5.  Schools  seeking  considerable  credit  in  science  must  demon- 
strate their  ability  to  do  successful  laboratory  work. 

6.  Schools  seeking  considerable  credit  in  history  and  English 
must  give  evidence  of  a special  library  equipment  for  teaching  these 
branches. 

Private  academies,  seminaries,  normal  schools,  or  other  second- 
ary schools,  meeting  the  conditions  mentioned  above,  or  their  equiv- 
alent, may  be  accepted  on  the  same  basis  as  high  schools. 

The  colleges  composing  the  College  Department  of  the  State 
Association  are:  The  State  University;  Cornell;  Iowa  College 

(Grinnell);  State  Agricultural  College  (Ames);  Upper  Iowa  Univer- 
sity; Iowa  Wesleyan  (Mount  Pleasant);  Parsons;  Penn;  Drake; 
Western;  Des  Moines  College;  Luther;  Simpson;  Tabor;  Coe. 

These  have  uniform  entrance  requirements,  with  very  slight  ex- 
ceptions as  noted  on  page  132.  Every  school  on  the  accredited  list 
can  thus  enter  its  students  in  some  one  or  more  of  the  courses  of 
each  of  these  institutions. 


131 


II.  HOW  A HIGH  SCHOOL  MAY  BECOME  ACCREDITED. 

1.  Either  the  superintendent  of  schools,  the  principal  of  the 
high  school,  or  an  officer  of  the  Board  of  Education,  may  make  appli- 
cation that  a high  school  be  accredited. 

2.  Either  should  write  for  the  necessary  application  and  report 
blank  to  the  Professor  of  the  Science  and  Art  of  Teaching  of  the 
State  University,  who  is  also  the  official  recorder  of  the  committee 
on  Secondary  School  Relations  representing  the  college  department 
or  to  the  present  secretary  of  the  committee.  Professor  Thomas 
Nicholson,  Cornell  College,  Mount  Vernon,  Iowa. 

3.  This  blank  should  be  signed  by  the  president  and  the  secre- 
tary of  the  Board  of  Education,  the  superintendent  of  schools,  and 
the  principal  of  the  high  school.  Full  and  detailed  information  con- 
cerning the  teachers,  pupils,  and  material  equipment  of  the  high 
school  should  be  furnished,  according  to  the  outlines  given  in  the 
blank. 

4.  This  application  and  report  should  be  forwarded  to  the  Pro- 
fessor of  the  Science  and  Art  of  Teaching  in  the  State  University  of 
Iowa,  or  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Committee  on  Secondary  School 
Relations,  as  under  2 above. 

5.  There  should  be  forwarded  along  with  the  application  and  re- 
port two  copies  of  the  high  school  courses  of  study,  corrected  to  date. 

6.  An  analysis  of  the  courses  of  study  will  be  made  in  the  office 
of  the  official  recorder  of  the  Committee  on  Secondary  School  Rela- 
tions, in  such  a way  as  to  show  their  relation  to  the  minimum  re- 
quirements for  admission  to  college;  and  a copy  of  the  analysis  will 
be  sent  to  the  superintendent  or  principal  at  once. 

7.  After  the  high  school  shall  have  been  duly  inspected,  and 
after  the  inspector’s  report,  together  with  the  analysis  of  the  courses 
of  study,  shall  have  been  submitted  to  the  committee  on  Secondary 
School  Relations,  the  committee  will  accredit  the  school,  if  it  shall 
appear  that  the  conditions  required  shall  have  been  met. 

8.  The  committee  desires  to  receive  annually  from  accredited 
schools  full  reports  as  to  teachers,  pupils,  courses  of  study,  and  ma- 
terial equipment  in  text-books,  library,  apparatus,  and  buildings, 
and  to  this  end  report  blanks  will  be  sent  to  each  accredited  school 
each  year,  shortly  after  the  opening  of  the  school  year,  from  the  Re- 
corder’s office  at  the  State  University.  Further  inquiries  will  receive 
prompt  attention,  as  will  also  any  correspondence  relating  to  possi- 
ble changes  in  our  adjustment  of  courses  of  study  looking  toward  the 
accrediting  of  any  given  school  if  the  correspondence  is  directed  to 
the  Professor  of  Pedagogy  of  the  State  University,  Iowa  City;  the 
Chairman  of  the  Committee  on  Secondary  Schools,  Professor  J. 
H.  T.  Main,  Iowa  College,  Grinnell,  or  to  the  Secretary  of  said 
Committee,  Professor  Thomas  Nicholson,  Cornell  College,  Mount 
Vernon,  Iowa. 


132 


ASSOCIATION  COURSE  OF  STUDY  AND  ENTRANCE  RE- 
QUIREMENTS. 

So  far  as  the  Committee  is  able  to  ascertain,  the  course  of 
study  adopted  by  the  General  Association  will  enable  a student  to 
enter  any  of  the  colleges  comprising  the  College  Department  of 
the  State  Teachers’  Association  in  some  of  their  courses,  with  the 
slight  exceptions  here  to  be  noted.  Superintendents,  high  school 
principals  and  school  boards  are  urgently  requested  to  secure 
copies  of  the  catalog  of  each  of  the  schools  (the  names  are  given 
in  the  chapter  on  accrediting)  and  carefully  examine  the  entrance 
requirements.  These  will  afford  suggestions  as  to  the  allowable 
subjects  most  desired  by  the  colleges  and  which  should,  if  possi- 
ble, be  provided  for  in  the  high  school  college  preparatory  course. 
Subjects  mentioned  in  the  catalogs  are  desired,  but  the  others  are 
accepted  as  substitutes. 

The  colleges  have  made  numerous  changes  in  their  entrance 
requirements  to  make  them,  as  far  as  possible,  uniform  with  the 
General  Association  course.  The  Association  course  requires  only 
plane  geometry,  three  terms’  work  (it  proviaes  for  solid  geometry 
as  elective);  whereas,  the  State  University  requires  plane  and 
solid  geometry,  four  and  one-half  terms’  work.  As  it  has  no 
preparatory  course,  the  solid  geometry  must  be  made  up  if  it  is  not 
taken  in  the  high  school  before  the  student  can  fully  enter  Fresh- 
man. Cornell,  Drake  and  some  other  schools  have  changed 
solid  geometry  to  the  Freshman  year  to  accommodate  themselves  the 
better  to  the  Association  course  of  study.  Again,  the  Association 
course  requires  English  only  7|  terms’  work,  whereas,  after 
September,  1902,  the  State  University,  and  doubtless,  all  the  col- 
leges, will  require  11  terms’  work  in  English.  Some  minor  differ- 
ences will  be  fully  met  if  the  amount  of  work  outlined  in  the  body 
of  this  Manual  is  done,  as  for  instance,  the  State  Association 
course  requires  an  amount  of  Latin  which'  is  really  the  equivalent 
of  Ilf  terms’  work,  whereas,  the  General  College  Entrance  Require- 
ments are  12  full  terms’  work.  If  the  Latin  outlined  in  the  body 
of  the  Manual,  page  52,  is  completed,  the  requirement  will  be  fully 
met.  This  is  true  of  of  some  other  subjects. 

The  President  of  Iowa  College,  Grinnell,  writes:  “Students  who 
take  the  study  outlined  in  the  Manual  will  be  able  to  enter  the 
Freshman  class  without  condition,  providing  they  elect  in  the 
third  and  fourth  years  a second  language,  Greek,  or  German,  or 
French.  If  they  do  not  take  this  second  language  they  will  be 
admitted  to  Freshman  classification^  but  with  a condition  of  two 
years  in  the  second  language.  The  high  school  course,  as  pro- 
vided in  the  Manual,  is  a very  good  preparatory  course  for  Iowa 
College,  provided  the  second  language  is  elected.’’ 

Dean  Hill  M.  Bell,  of  Drake  University,  writes,  “We  have  been 


133 


requiring  all  persons  entering  here  to  bring  solid  geometry,  but 
our  faculty  has  concluded  that  hereafter  it  shall  be  put  in  the 
Freshman  year  of  the  college.  We  do  this  in  order  to  manifest 
our  willingness  to  conform  to  the  committee  report  and  the  State 
Association  requirements.  We  feel  that  it  is  the  thing  for  every 
college  in  the  state  to  do.” 

These  letters  fairly  represent  the  sentiment  of  the  colleges 
toward  the  high  schools.  It  is  confidently  expected  that  within 
the  next  year  or  two  any  little  discrepancies  which  now  exist  will 
be  arranged  by  mutual  conference  of  the  General  Association 
Committee  and  the  College  Entrance  Requirement  Committee,  so 
that  the  course  of  study  outlined  by  the  General  Association  will 
fully  meet  the  entrance  requirements  of  all  the  colleges.  A little 
patience  and  consideration  on  the  part  of  all  concerned  during  the 
period  of  the  adjustment  of  the  infinite  details  and  the  many  discrep- 
ancies which  have  been  a cause  of  irritation  in  the  past  will  ensure 
perfect  harmony  and  good  feeling  between  the  colleges  and  the  high 
schools  in  the  very  near  future,  and  we  shall  have  a perfect  articu- 
lation of  courses.  Great  advance  has  been  made  in  this  direction 
within  the  past  five  years.” 

The  Committee  looks  forward  to  the  publication  of  a new  edition 
of  this  Manual  with  such  minor  changes  in  the  course  of  study  and 
the  write-up  in  the  various  departments  as  experience  and  the  prac- 
tical attempt  of  our  schools  to  carry  out  the  suggestions  here  made 
may  bring  to  them.  It  is  hoped  that  such  second  and  revised  edi- 
tion may  be  brought  out  within  the  next  three  years  at  least. 


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